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Paper 3b Studies
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- 1CrimeBehaviour which is legally wrong and can be followed with punishment by law
For example, driving above the speed limit - 2DevianceBehaviour which is socially unacceptable, though is not legally wrong
For example, intercourse is not deviant in itself, though can become illegal depending on context, e.g. age and place - 3Social ConstructionCrime and deviance are socially constructed, in that they are defined by societies individually
They are also relative to time, culture, and place - 4Police-Recorded CrimeDrawn from police records, collected by The Home Office, and published every six months
Police-recorded crime in England and Wales fell by 6.1% between 2011 and 2012 - 5British Crime SurveyConducts over 48,000 home interviews annually, and designed to give an insight into unreported and unrecorded crime
9.1 million crimes were reported in 2011/2012, down from 9.7 million the previous year - 6The Dark Figure of CrimeRefers to all unreported and unrecorded crime, which cannot be known
The British Crime Survey found that 9.1 million crimes were committed in 2011/2012, but only 3.9 million were Police-Recorded - 7CicourelWorking-class youths are most likely to be arrested due to police perceptions
They fit the picture of the 'typical delinquent' - 8OakleyCriticises the patriarchal nature of crime statistics
For example, the proportion of rape cases which are dropped - 9Newburn (2007)One third of offenders cautioned and convicted are under 21, and 71% will re-offend
- 10Graham and Bowling (1995)Peak offending for serious offences was 17 for boys, but only 15 for girls
- 11ReinerPrior to imprisonment, 74% of offenders were from working-class backgrounds
- 12Blue-Collar and White-Collar CrimeBlue-collar crime costs the UK £200 million a year, while tax avoidance from the rich costs it over £32 billion a year
Despite this, blue-collar crime still receives more attention - 13Sharp and Budd (2005)Blacks and Asians are more likely to be charged than cautioned, and more likely to be given sentences rather than community punishment
- 14Ethnicity and Prison PopulationOf the 60,000 men in prison, approximately 15% are Afro-Caribbean, and 7% are Asian
Similarly, blacks make up 13% of the American population, and 50% of their prison population - 15Males and OffendingMen make up around 80% of offenders
- 16Gender and Prison PopulationThe UK prison population stands at 60,000 men and 3,500 women
- 17Islington Crime Survey (1986)Older people fear crime, though young people are most likely to be victims
- 18Young (1988) on Age and CrimeWhilst over-45s are less likely to be victims than young people, they are more likely to suffer from harm
e.g. they may have to take time off work to recover psychologically - 19BCS (2011) on ClassLone parent and unemployed households are twice as likely to be victims of burglary than other households
- 20Young (1988) on Class and CrimeChallenges the 'myth of the equal victim' and argues that groups such as the poor are hit harder when they become a victim
For example, a poor victim of burglary is likely to be hit harder economically than a wealthier victim
Their situation then makes them vulnerable to 'multiple victimisation' - 21Home Office (2014)Around 84% of all hate crimes were race hate crimes
- 22BCS on EthnicityBlacks and Asians are more at risk of household and personal offences than whites, and some are forms of hate crime
- 23BCS (2003) on GenderMen are twice as likely to be a victim of crime than women
- 24CSEW on GenderMales account for 70% of homicide victims, and are more likely to be killed by a stranger than partners
- 25BCS (2011) on Gender80% of female rape cases are dropped by the police
- 26Walklate (2006)Female victims are largely ignored due to the patriarchal nature of society
- 27Lea and Young (1984)Those who are young, working-class, an ethnic minority, and male, are likely to be victimised by someone with similar characteristics or background
- 28MatzaAdopts a Functionalist stance and criticises, arguing that people frequently drift in and out of value consensus
This also applies to the decrease of crime with age - 29Hirschi (1969)Social Bond Theory suggests that offending declines with age, and that people form stronger relationships which discourage them from committing crime
For example, family and marriage bonds are usually strong enough to prevent someone offending - 30Lyng (1990)Says youth crime is a result of edgework, and exercising a skill to push yourself to the very edge without coming to harm
- 31Katz (1988)Emotion plays a key role in crime, with murder seeing the release of feelings such as tension and humiliation
Less serious crimes can be explained in a similar way, e.g. the emotional power of thrill from shoplifting - 32Presdee (2004)Observed how Sixth Formers used arson as a means of symbolically destroying the power of adults
- 33Pearson (1983)Says there has always been a moral panic around certain types of crime, including youth crime
For example, 1920s razor gangs, 1960s/1970s hippies, and contemporary knife culture - 34Stanley Cohen (2002)Youth deviance could be a media construction, as media influences deviancy amplification
- 35Social ConstructivismBelieves ethnic minorities are treated unfairly by the criminal justice system
- 36Reiner (2000) on Canteen CulturesArgues that police recruits develop distinctive values to help them cope with the work
These values include suspicion towards ethnic minorities, masculinity, and racism - 37Bowling and Phillips (2002)Higher levels of crime amongst black people are the result of labelling ethnic minorities
This leads to deviancy amplification, increased suspicion, and more searches - 38Waddington (2004)Police are seven times more likely to stop blacks, because they target ethnic minority youths at night in high-risk areas such as inner cities, so more crime is found
- 39Macpherson ReportFound that the police investigation into murdered teenager Stephen Lawrence was influence by the police force's institutional racism
- 40The Secret Police Officer (2003)BBC documentary in which reporter Mark Daly went undercover to expose the racism present in Greater Manchester Police Force
- 41StructuralismBelieves ethnic minorities are more criminal
- 42Lea and Young (1984) on Black CrimeBlack people are more likely to commit crime due to relative deprivation, marginalisation, and the formation of subcultures
- 43GilroyEthnic minorities do commit more crime, but this is a political response to inequality and discrimination such as from the media and the police
For example, Rastafarianism often brings its followers into confrontation with the police through its culture - 44Chivalry ThesisStates that women are treated more leniently by the justice system, receiving softer punishments
- 45Farrington and MorrisCourts distinguish between different types of women
Those who deviate from both traditional femininity and the law are treated more harshly because they are 'doubly deviant' - 46Hedderman and HoughWomen who committed similar crimes to men and were from similar backgrounds received more lenient sentences
- 47PollackWomen commit more crime than statistics show because they are better at concealing their crimes, so are less likely to receive attention
- 48Heidensohn on PollackArgues that Pollack's view is stereotypical, and doesn't examine differences in biology
- 49Jones on PollackSays there is no real evidence that women are better at concealing crime
- 50Control TheoryArgues that women are less likely to commit crime because they are usually more controlled than men
- 51HeidensohnWomen in male-dominated societies are less likely to commit crime due to control:
At Home: Wives are expected to do housework, and daughters are not allowed to stay out too late
In Public: Fear of being attacked keeps women at home
At Work: Women are usually controlled by male superiors, and may also feel intimidated by sexual harassment - 52CarlenSuggests that humans are rational, and that women will only turn to crime when the advantages outweigh the disadvantages
Rejection of Class Deal: Women who turned to crime because they lacked opportunity, trying to solve their economic position
Rejection of Gender Deal: Women who turned to crime because patriarchal ideology did not grant them fulfilment from family life - 53McRobbieBecause girls are more controlled and overprotected than boys, they develop a 'bedroom culture' whereby they socialise at home with friends
- 54Liberation TheoryStates that female crime has been rising due to women's roles becoming gradually similar to men's
- 55Adler (1975)Argues that as women take on more male roles, they are also taking on male criminality
Between 1960 and 1972 USA, robberies by women increased by 277% compared to men's by 169% - 56Denscombe (2001)Found that females are adopting more male attitudes, including risk-taking behaviour such as smoking
- 57Carlen on Liberation TheoryLiberation Theory does not explain why women who have not benefited from liberation commit crime
- 58Messerschmidt (1993)Says that if a man's situation does not provide him with a legitimate means of living up to hegemonic masculinity, he may have to turn to illegitimate means
- 59Jefferson on MesserschmidtSays Messerschmidt fails to explain why some males do not commit crime to live up to hegemonic ideals of masculinity
- 60LemertProposed two types of deviance:
Primary Deviance: Small acts of deviance committed by everyone and not publicly labelled
Secondary Deviance: Committing crime as a result of being publicly labelled - 61Becker (1963)Says criminal and deviant acts are defined by society
Labelling results in a self-fulfilling prophecy and development of a master status (a transcending aspect of identity) - 62AckersArgues that Becker's theory is too deterministic, as it leaves labelled individuals with no option but to commit more crime
- 63Deviancy AmplificationDeviance which occurs when a label is emphasised to produce more deviance, e.g. being labelled a thief and committing more thefts
- 64Young (1971)Studied how police labelling caused deviancy amplification amongst hippies
Negative labels were emphasised, leaving to an even stronger subculture - 65Stephen JonesSuggests the law should try to avoid giving people a negative label when it has to intervene
- 66Moral PanicBegin when the media distorts the severity of a crime, creating mass concern
Similar pieces of crime are then over-reported, leading to the police wanting more action and thus more arrests
Folk devils (those portrayed by the media as deviant) are also created - 67Leah BettsA girl whose death was over-reported by the media, which caused a moral panic around the dangerousness recreational drugs such as ecstasy
- 68FawbertStudied the ban on hoodies imposed by Bluewater Shopping Centre of Kent, after they were perceived as a threat to shopkeepers and shoppers
Deviancy amplification followed, with the hoodie becoming a staple of fashion and visitors purposefully buying hoodies from the centre - 69Stanley Cohen (1972)Researched 1964's riots between the 'mods' and 'rockers' in various South England seaside towns
They quickly escalated from a small fight to a large-scale riot due to excessive media coverage - 70Taylor, Walton and Young on CohenMost deviance is defined by the action itself rather than society's reaction
- 71McRobbie and ThorntonPeople are media literate and aware, and unlikely to accept what is given to them
- 72DurkheimAdmits there is little value consensus due to a lack of attachment to different agents
Crime and deviance is a good thing, as sanctions remind people of what is acceptable in society, increasing value consensus - 73Chambliss on DurkheimCrime is constructed by capitalism rather than being due to human nature
- 74Merton (1938)If people do not have legitimate means of achieving society's valued goals, they will adapt in one of five ways:
Conformity: Pursuing cultural goals through approved means
Innovation: Accepting cultural goals but using illegitimate means, e.g. dealing drugs
Ritualism: Following means although ignoring the goals, e.g. following routine
Retreatism: Rejecting and escaping means and goals, e.g. through drug addiction
Rebellion: Rejecting goals and means, attempting to replace them with alternatives, e.g. political revolutionaries - 75VailerCriticises Merton, and says that not everyone has goals which revolve around money and success
- 76Albert Cohen (1961)Deviance allows people to 'let off steam' in a relatively harmless way and remain functional
For example, prostitution is a release that allows for sexual expression - 77Clinard (1974)When crime and deviance occurs, it sends messages that social order is breaking down, and prompts governments to do something about the problem
- 78Bonger (1916) on ClinardLaws are created to protect the Bourgeoisie from working-class opposition
- 79Cloward and Ohlin (1960)For deviance to occur, people must have access to one of three subcultures:
Criminal Subcultures: Those which see gang members accessing an illegitimate opportunity structure and making money from local organised crime, but these are not available to all youths
Conflict Subcultures: Formed to defend territory amongst youths in more unstable and disorganised areas
Retreatist Subcultures: Those who have been unsuccessful in achieving legitimately or illegitimately, withdrawing from society’s values altogether and descend into addiction and petty crime - 80SouthSays that the British drug trade can be explained with their theory
- 81Miller (1958)Working-class youths exaggerate six focal concerns, which often lead to crime and deviance, to gain peer status:
Fate: They accept they have no legitimate means of achieving, so turn to delinquency
Toughness: They attempt to face the society which disadvantages them with courage, e.g. through assult
Smartness: They attempt to outwit those who have achieved status legitimately, e.g. through pickpocketing - 82ParkerFound evidence of Miller's focal concerns amongst working-class boys in Liverpool
- 83Box on MillerSays Miller's focal concerns are not unique and can be found in all classes
- 84Albert Cohen (1956)Studied working-class boys and noted how they envied middle-class opportunities and so inverted their values of success
They instead gained peer status by acting upon their status frustration as they 'hit back' at the group which has denied them opportunity - 85BorduaDeviant values are passed through generations rather than each boy independently inverting middle-class values due to status frustration
- 86Box on Albert CohenSays the working-class are simply retaliating against the people who treated them unfairly, i.e. the middle-class and upper-class
- 87BoxPunishing individuals as 'social failures' through imprisonment 'legitimately' neutralises opposition to capitalism
This creates the illusion that the working-class commit more crime - 88Chambliss (1976)Hostile values generated by the capitalist system motivate people to use whatever means they have to commit crime, e.g. theft and prostitution
- 89Chambliss on LawsThe first vagrancy laws emerged when the Black Death caused a significant reduction in the labour force, showing that capitalism required employment to be maximised
- 90Jones on ChamblissNot all laws benefit capitalism, and laws against insider trading stop capitalists from making large profits from their knowledge of mergers and takeovers
- 91Bonger (1916)Capitalism is based upon competition, selfishness, and greed, and crime is a perfectly normal outcome of these qualities for the working-class
Laws are then created to protect the Bourgeoisie - 92Jones on BongerSwitzerland has long embraced capitalism, and crime rates are very low
- 93Castles and Kosack (1973)Conflict is deliberately encouraged by the capitalists to legitimise low pay, divide the workforce, and scapegoat groups for problems caused by capitalism
- 94Hall et al. (1978)There was a moral panic around mugging in the 1970s which was intended to scapegoat ethnic minorities for economic problems caused by capitalism
- 95Scraton'Cultures of resistance' have emerged as a response to ethnic minorities being left in lower social positions
These originated in anti-colonial struggles, so black crime is a political to racism rather than a criminal act - 96Radical CriminologyCombined Marxism and Interactionism
Examines how the state criminalises certain actions to manage capitalism, rather than focusing on interactions between an offender and the police - 97Taylor, Walton and Young (1973)Propose a 'fully social theory of deviance' which suggests a multi-causal explanation of deviance
We need to consider the ORIGINS of a deviant act as well as the ACT ITSELF and the influence of social REACTIONS - 98Chambliss (1973) on LabellingInvestigated labelling by studying two high-school gangs from different classes:
The Saints: Upper middle-class gang who had relatively few police encounters
The Roughnecks: Lower-class gang who were subject to more community vigilance - 99Green CrimeEnvironmental crime which causes harm to any aspect of the living world
It can range from individual actions such as bonfires to those by performed by businesses, e.g. tree felling - 100Beck (1992)Globalisation has resulted in a global risk society, in which global risks exceed national boundaries
Individual nations do not have enough power to solve this, so all must play a role in preserving the environment - 101Carrabine et al.Primary Green Crime: When the environment itself is damaged, e.g. unregulated fishing is considered victimless, despite putting a species at risk
Secondary Green Crime: Comes out of conflict between humans, and cause indirect harm to environments, e.g. Rainbow Warrior Incident of 1985 - 102Aas (2007)Green crime is similar to global crime as it crosses borders
Local environmental harm is often the product of a chain of geographically dispersed activities - 103Potter (2010)Many environmentally damaging activities highlight the abuse of power in the pursuit of profit
Crime should be considered in terms of harm rather than legality, e.g. millions of avoidable deaths are linked to environmental problems such as lack of clean water, with the poorest suffering the most - 104Global Organised CrimeCrime which is occurring due to globalisation having created new opportunities to commit crime
It includes cyber-crime, drug trafficking, and human trafficking - 105United NationsDefines an organised criminal group as three or more persons who have existed for a period of time, and aim to commit serious crime
- 106Gastrow (2013)Says state borders are irrelevant as criminal organisation cannot be tracked
Also, demand for cheap goods will increase as wealth inequalities do - 107Castells (1998)Says there is now a global crime economy worth over £1 trillion per year, and that this growth is comparable to the growth of business networks
- 108Roberts (1995)Criticises global cooperation, and says local contexts support the function of criminal networks (glocalisation)
For example, global drug trades are influenced by the way it is organised in an individual country - 109International Labour Office (2006)Says human trafficking can be regarded as the 'underside' of globalisation, as it represents global failures to protect the most vulnerable and least protected in the world
- 110PunishmentRetribution (Right Wing): Aims to make the offender pay for what they have done – a form of revenge
Rehabilitation (Left Wing): Aims to reintegrate the offender back into society having addressed the causes of offending such as The Clink - 111Left RealismInfluenced by Marxism and Interactionism
It aims to offer solutions to crime which have considered the effect on victims - 112Left Wing Crime Reduction and PreventionLeft-Wingers see the social structure as the main cause of crime, focusing on issues such as deprivation and exclusion. Policies may include:
Reducing Income Inequalities, such as a higher minimum wage and increased benefits
Raising Living Standards and Quality of Life, such as through building more affordable housing and recreational facilities in deprived areas.
Reducing Unemployment, such as through investing in apprenticeships
Improving Education and Training Opportunities, such as through compensatory educational schemes - 113The Square of CrimeCrime rates would change if one of these factors changed:
The Offender: Why do they commit crime?
The Victim: Do they feel they can report crime, and do they know or fear the offender?
The State: How do the police try to deal with the crime?
Society: Crime can be reduced by providing better job prospects and a sense of community - 114Young (1984)Criminology's role is to provide solutions for policy-makers to limit the harm that crime does to the working-class
He labelled Marxist criminology as 'left idealism' - it provided a good theory, but had no practical solutions - 115Crime and Disorder Reduction PartnershipsAdopt a multi-agency approach to reducing crime, such as between emergency services, local authorities, and the public sector
Lea and Young argue that such communication would allow for identification of those most at risk of offending/victimisation, allowing for early interventions
Lack of interaction between these have resulted in cases of sexual exploitation and child safeguarding issues - 116Community PolicingMeans improving relationships between the public and police, to the extent that the public feel more comfortable to report crime
Lea and Young (1993) say the over-policing of minor offences leads to the under-policing of white-collar crime and serious offences such as domestic violence - 117Restorative JusticeMeans having the offender meet with the victim and discuss what harm they have caused
Such discussions have shown a high rate of victim satisfaction and considerable success in reducing recidivism - 118Evaluating Left Wing PoliciesMurray (1994) points out that the 1960s and 1970s USA attempted policies such as preschool socialisation programmes and guaranteed jobs for young people without skills
He argues that such policies were all ‘notorious failures’ which did not produce long-term group results that survive scrutiny - 119Right RealismInfluenced by Functionalism and Control Theory
It views humans as naturally selfish and greedy, and need to be controlled into behaving appropriately through social control - 120Clarke and Coleman (1980)Rational Choice Theory: People will only engage in crime if the benefits outweigh the risks
For example, increasing CCTV will encourage cost-benefit analysis and usually lead to the decision to not commit crime - 121Wilson (1982)Broken Windows Theory: Increased policing will reduce the seemingly minor acts of crime which lead to antisocial behaviour
It is closely related to Zero-Tolerance Policies - 122Murray (1984)The underclass are an example of those who have been unsuccessfully integrated into society's norms and values
They are most associated with welfare dependency, illegitimacy, and educational failure, so require social control - 123Right Wing Crime Reduction and PreventionClarke (1980) argues that criminality is usually a conscious choice and that the likelihood of being caught are significant factors affecting criminality
- 124Situational Crime PreventionMeasures which make crime harder to commit or capture more likely
It includes ‘target hardening,’ which aims to secure targets of crime such as houses (through installing alarms) and cars (through locking them)
Clarke (1980) found that theft from phone boxes was virtually eliminated when aluminium coin boxes were replaced with steel ones - 125Environmental Crime PreventionWider measures related to altering the public environment which can make any deviance less likely
For instance, Defensible Space Theory states that markers used to indicate that an area is private will discourage crime from being committed, because surveillance over public areas is more difficult - 126Zero-Tolerance PoliciesPunishment of minor crimes should be just as bad as major crimes, increasing the cost of crime
Zimring (2011) found that New York homicide rates had dropped by 82% from 1990 to 2009 - 127DNA DatabaseDNA is stored every time someone is arrested, meaning they are more likely to be caught for further crime
It therefore deters offenders from reoffending - 128Evaluating Right Wing PoliciesSimon (1988) points out that ‘changing people’ is difficult and expensive, explaining why policy makers instead focus on restricting people’s actions
Because original causes have not been addressed, crime will increase again
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