7. Memory

7. Memory

1. 1. THE NATURE OF MEMORY

   • = The retention of information or experience over time
     • 3 processes:
       • Encoding
       • Storage
       • Retrieval

2. 2. MEMORY ENCODING

   • = The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage
     • VIrtually automatically
     • Efforts: paying attention, processing deeply, elaborating, using mental imagery
     • Selective attention
       • = We have to attend selectively to some things in our environment and ignore others
       • Divided attention
         • = Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
         • Sustained attention / Vigilance
           • = The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
           • Levels of processing
             • = A continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory
             • Elaboration
               • = The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding
                 • COncrete examples, self reference
               • Mental imagery
                 • Paivio: memory is stored in one of two ways
                   • verbal code
                   • image code

3. 3. MEMORY STORAGE

   • = The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory
     • Atkinson-Shiffrin theroy
       • = Theory stating that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
         • Sensory memory
           • from a fraction of e second to several seconds
           • Sensory memory
             • = Memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses
               • Echoic memory
                 • Auditory, up to several seconds
               • Iconic memory
                 • Visual, about 1/4 second
             • Short-term memory
               • = Limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless the individual uses strategies to retain it longer
                 • Memory span
                   • = the number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them
                   • Chunking
                     • Rehearsal
                       • the conscious repetition of information
                     • involves grouping or “packing” information that exceeds the 7 ± 2 memory span into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units
               • Working memory
                 • = A combination of components, including short-term memory and attention, that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to guide understanding, decision making, and problem solving
                   • Active memory system // Passive for short term memory
                     • Mental place where thinking occurs
                   • Baddeley's model
                     • Phonological loop
                     • Visuo-spatial sketchpad
                     • Central executive
                       • information not only from the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad but also from long-term memory
                 • Long-term memory
                   • = A relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time
                     • Explicit
                       • Who, what, where, when and why
                     • Implicit
                       • How to do things
                   • Explicit/Declarative memory
                     • = The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated
                     • Bahrick test
                       • Permastore memory
                         • = Represents that portion of original learning that appears destined to be with the person virtually forever, even without rehearsal
                         • Endel Tulving, 2 subtypes
                           • Episodic memory
                             • = The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings—that is, how individuals remember life's episodes
                           • Semantic memory
                             • = A person's knowledge about the world, including his or her areas of expertise; general knowledge, such as of things learned in school, and everyday knowledge
                     • Implicit/nondeclarative memory
                       • = Memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience
                       • 3 subsystems
                         • Procedural memory
                           • = Memory for skills
                         • Classical conditioning
                           • = automatic learning of associations between stimuli, so that one comes to evoke the same response as the other
                         • Priming
                           • = The activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster
                   • Theories of hw long term memory is organized
                     • Schemas
                       • = A preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information. Schemas from prior encounters with the environment influence the way individuals encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
                         • A schema for an event, often containing information about physical features, people, and typical occurrences
                     • Connectionist networks
                       • Connectionism or parallel distributed processing (PDP)
                         • = The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons, several of which may work together to process a single memory
                     • Where memories are stored
                       • Neurons and memory
         • Short-term memory
           • Up to 30 seconds
         • Long term memory
           • Up to a lifetime

4. 4. MEMORY RETRIEVAL

5. 5. FORGETTING

6. 6. STUDY TIPS FROM THE SCIENCE OF MEMORY

7. 7. MEMORY AND HEALTH AND WELLNESS

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