Cells

1. Saturated
2. Unsaturated

1. Membranes

1. Enzymes

1. Polymers

1. Mitochondria

   Anmerkungen:

   • Site of respiration
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum

   Anmerkungen:

   •  Many proteins are synthesised on ribosomes in the ER Rough = Ribosomes Smooth = No ribosomes
3. Ribosomes
4. Lysosomes

   Anmerkungen:

   • Digestive compartment
5. Golgi Apparatus

   Anmerkungen:

   • Cell's 'postal service', where packaging and distributing of stuff e.g. proteins
6. Microtubules
7. Plants Only
   1. Chloroplasts

      Anmerkungen:

      • Where photosynthesis occurs
   2. Cell Wall

      Anmerkungen:

      • Cell stability
   3. Central Vacuole

      Anmerkungen:

      • Storage and detoxification
8. Peroxisomes

   Anmerkungen:

   • Cell's detoxification centres

1. Capsule
2. Cell Wall
3. Plasma Membrane
4. Nucleoid

   Anmerkungen:

   • Where main DNA sits
5. Ribosome
6. Plasmid

   Anmerkungen:

   • Small 'bits' of DNA
7. Fimbriae

   Anmerkungen:

   • Aka Cili. Allows cell to attach to surfaces.
8. Flangellum

   Anmerkungen:

   • Allows cell to move

1. Topoisomerase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Topoisomerase 'fixes' increased coiling caused by Helicase. Topoisomerase - too tight I fix
2. DNA primase

   Anmerkungen:

   • DNA primase synthesizes RNA primer Primase - Primer
3. Helicase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Helicase seperates DNA strands. Helicase-Helicopter-ChopChop
4. DNA-ligase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Joins the Okazaki DNA fragments Ligase - Likes fixing gaps
5. DNA-Polymerase
   1. Pol 1

      Anmerkungen:

      • Replaces RNA primer with DNA
   2. Pol 3

      Anmerkungen:

      •  RNA primer extended by DNA Polymerase III   
6. Lagging Strand
7. Leading Strand

Anmerkungen:

• Second growth phase. Checkpoint 2 - Checks DNA synthesis went okay. Check cell is ready for mitosis.

Anmerkungen:

• Cell growth. Checkpoint 1 - Checks division went okay and all organelles are functional. Check cell is ready for synthesis phase.

Anmerkungen:

• DNA synthesis phase. DNA is replicated and forms chromatin.

Anmerkungen:

• Normal cell metabolism. No replication.

Anmerkungen:

• Main cell division made up of 6 different phases. Checkpoint M - Checks kinetochores are attached to spindle before anaphase.

1. Prophase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Prophase (Pairs) DNA condenses into Chromosomes. Centrosome divides and forms Mitotic spindle.
2. Prometaphase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Kinetochores on chromosomes bind to microtubules
3. Metaphase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Metaphase (middle) Mitotic Spindle alines chromosomes in middle of cell
4. Anaphase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Anaphase (Apart) Mitotic Spindle pulls sister chromatids apart and into opposite ends of the cell.
5. Telophase

   Anmerkungen:

   • Nuclear envelopes form around chromatids sets Cleavage furrow forms

Anmerkungen:

• Cell splits into two daughter cells

1. Cancer

   Anmerkungen:

   • Loss of cell cycle control = cancer Cancer cells do not respond naturally to the body's control mechanisms.
   1. Oncogenes

      Anmerkungen:

      • Genes that actively promote cell division. If not turned off at right times, can lead to cancer.
   2. Tumor Suppressor Genes

      Anmerkungen:

      • Inhibit cell division Stop working can lead to cancer
      1. p53

         Anmerkungen:

         • >50% human cancer patients have mutated p53 gene p53 prevents cells with damaged DNA from replicating
2. 1. Cyclin

      Anmerkungen:

      • - Regulatory unit - Production begins during S phase - Accumulates during S and G2 phases. - Binds with CDK during G2 phase. - Once bound and activated, forms MPF. - Broken down after M phase
   2. Cyclin-Dependant- Kinase (CDK)

      Anmerkungen:

      • - Catalytic subunit - Constant concentration - Binds with Cyclin in sufficient Cyclin concentrations. - Once bound, helps cell move past G2 checkpoint.
   3. MPF

      Anmerkungen:

      • - Maturation (or Mitosis) promoting factor - Forms from binding of cyclin + CDK - Activates mitosis proteins - Triggers mitosis by phosphorylating proteins:  > promotes envelope breakdown during prophase.  > May help chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle to form in prophase.  > Cyclin component breaks down in anaphase.- Broken down into cyclin & CDK after mitosis

1. Cytosol
   1. Stage 1: Glycolysis
      1. Uses Glucose
      2. Produces
         1. 2 ATP
         2. 2 NADH
2. Mitochondrial Matrix
   1. Stage 2a: Pyruvate Oxidisation
      1. Uses
         1. 2 Pyruvate
      2. Produces
         1. CO2
         3. NADH
   2. Stage 2b: Citric Acid Cycle
      1. Uses
         1. Acetyl-CoA
      2. Produces
         1. 2 CO2
         2. FADH2
         3. 3 NADH
         4. ATP
3. Mitochondrial Membranes
   1. Stage 3: Oxidative Phosphorylation
      1. Electron Transport Chain
         1. Proton Gradient
            1. Chemiosmosis
               1. Produces
                  1. ATP
         2. Uses
            1. NADH
            2. FADH2

1. 'Light' Reaction
   1. Produces
      1. ATP
      2. NAD(P)H
2. 'Dark' Reactions
   1. Uses
      1. ATP
      2. NAD(P)H
      3. CO2
   2. Produces
      1. Sugars

1. ADP
2. Phosphate