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Cameron Rogers Englisch 199 Karten

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  1. 1α-helixA protein secondary structure - a right-handed spiral held in place by hydrogen bonds between adjacent C=O and NH groups.
  2. 2AbundanceThe frequency of occurrence of plants in a sampled area such as a quadrat.
  3. 3Activation energyThe level of energy required to enable a reaction to take place. Enzymes reduce the amount of energy required to allow a reaction to proceed.
  4. 4Active immunityImmunity that is acquired by activation of immune system.
  5. 5Active siteThe area on an enzyme molecule to which the substrate binds.
  6. 6Active transportMovement of substances across membranes against their concentration gradient requiring the use of energy in the form of ATP. Active transport usually involves the use of transport proteins.
  7. 7AdaptationFeature of a living organism that increases its chances of survival for example thick fur on an animal that lives in a cold habitat.
  8. 8AdenineA nitrogen-containing organic base found in nucleic acids. It pairs with thymine in DNA and with uracil in RNA.
  9. 9AdhesionForce of attraction between molecules of two different substances.
  10. 10AdiposeDescribes tissue consisting of cells that store fat/lipid.
  11. 11AffinityAn attractive force between substances or particles.
  12. 12AlleleA version of a gene.
  13. 13AllopatricSpeciation due to organisms of a species being separated by geographical barriers so that over time members of the two populations become so different that they cannot interbreed and are considered to be two different species.
  14. 14AlveoliSmall air sacs in the lungs.
  15. 15Amino acidAn organic compound that contains both an amino group (–NH2) and a carboxyl group (–COOH). Amino acids are the monomers of protein molecules.
  16. 16AmylaseAn enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
  17. 17AmylosePart of a starch molecule consisting of many thousands of glucose residues bonded together.
  18. 18AnaphaseIn mitosis the stage when the newly separated chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles of the nuclear spindle.
  19. 19AnomalousDescribes a result/data point that does not appear to fit the pattern of the other results. It may be assumed to be anomalous if the experimenter has made an error or if the apparatus used is not suitable for the measurements being taken.
  20. 20AntibioticsMolecules produced by microorganisms that kill or limit the growth of other microorganisms
  21. 21AntibodiesProtein molecules released by the immune system in response to an antigen which are capable of neutralising the effects of the antigen.
  22. 22AntigenA foreign molecule (which may be protein or glycoprotein) that can provoke an immune response. Organisms have antigens on their plasma (cell surface) membranes.
  23. 23Antigen-presenting cellA macrophage that has ingested a pathogen and displays the pathogen’s antigens on its cell surface membrane.
  24. 24Apoplast pathwayThe route taken by water between the cells or through the cell walls in a plant.
  25. 25ArteriosclerosisHardening of the artery walls and loss of elasticity caused by atherosclerosis or by deposition of calcium.
  26. 26Artificial immunityImmunity acquired as a result of deliberate exposure to antigens or by the injection of antibodies.
  27. 27Artificial selectionAlso called selective breeding – the process of improving a variety of crop plant or domesticated animal by breeding from selected individuals with desired characteristics.
  28. 28Asexual reproductionThe production of genetically identical new organisms by a single ‘parent’ organism.
  29. 29AssayThe use of comparative studies or samples to determine the concentration or quantity of a substance in a sample.
  30. 30AssimilationIncorporation. Usually applied to the process of incorporating simple molecules of food produced by digestion into the living cells of an animal for use in metabolism. In plants refers to the incorporation of carbon from carbon dioxide into organic substances during photosynthesis. The newly formed compounds may be referred to as assimilates.
  31. 31Atherosclerosis / atheromaThe process of deposition of fatty substances in the lining of arteries to form atheroma which may eventually lead to arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
  32. 32ATPAdenosine triphosphate – a molecule used to store energy temporarily in organisms. The molecule is broken down to adenosine diphosphate + phosphate to release energy to drive metabolic processes.
  33. 33Atrioventricular node (AVN)A patch of tissue in the septum of the heart that conducts the electrical stimulus from the atria in the heart through to the Purkyne fibres.
  34. 34Atrioventricular valvesValves between the atria and ventricles that prevent backflow of blood.
  35. 35AtriumOne of the upper chambers in the heart.
  36. 36AutotrophAn organism that makes its own food from simple inorganic molecules such as carbon dioxide and water. Some (photoautotrophs) e.g. plants use light as the source of energy. Some (chemoautotrophs) e.g. some bacteria use chemical energy. Autotrophs are the producers in a food chain.
  37. 37Base-pairing rulesComplementary base-pairing between nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids. Adenine pairs with thymine (or uracil). Guanine pairs with cytosine.
  38. 38Benedict’s testTest for reducing sugars. The substance is heated to 80?şC with Benedict’s reagent. If a reducing sugar is present the Benedict’s reagent changes from blue to red/red precipitate.
  39. 39Binary fissionMethod of cell division in bacteria. The DNA replicates and the cell divides into two each having the same DNA as the parent cell. It does not involve mitosis.
  40. 40Binomial systemA system of naming living things using two Latin words – the genus name and the specific name.
  41. 41BiodiversityThe number and variety of living things to be found in the world in an ecosystem or in a habitat.
  42. 42Biuret testA biochemical test for the presence of proteins.
  43. 43Body mass indexNumerical value found by dividing an individual’s mass in kg by the (height in m)2 and used to assess if the individual is underweight acceptable weight overweight or obese.
  44. 44Bohr shift / Bohr effectThe effect of carbon dioxide concentration on the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
  45. 45BronchiAirways in the lungs that lead from the trachea to the bronchioles.
  46. 46BronchiolesAirways in the lungs that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli.
  47. 47BufferA chemical system that resists changes in pH by maintaining a constant level of hydrogen ions in solution. Certain chemicals dissolved in the solution are responsible for this.
  48. 48CalibrationTo determine the quantity of a substance in a solution by taking readings from solutions containing known amounts of the solution (e.g. by colorimetry) and constructing a calibration curve on a graph. This can then be used to determine the amount of that substance in solutions of unknown concentration. Also to determine the value of intervals of a scale on an instrument such as a thermometer.
  49. 49CambiumPlant tissue in the stem and root that contains dividing cells.
  50. 50CarbaminohaemoglobinThe molecule resulting from combination of carbon dioxide and haemoglobin.
  51. 51CarbohydrateA class of biological molecules with the general formula Cx(H2O)y. It includes sugars starches glycogen and cellulose.
  52. 52CarcinogenA substance that causes cancer.
  53. 53Cardiac cycleThe sequence of events making up one heartbeat.
  54. 54Cardiac muscleThe muscle found in the heart. It has its own intrinsic heartbeat (it is myogenic).
  55. 55CarnivoreAn animal that eats meat.
  56. 56Carrier proteinA protein found in membranes which is capable of carrying a specific molecule or ion through the membrane by active transport.
  57. 57CartilageA flexible slightly elastic connective tissue.
  58. 58Cartilage ringA flexible ring of cartilage that holds the airways open.
  59. 59Casparian stripA strip of waterproof material (suberin) in the cell walls of root endodermis cells. It blocks the apoplast pathway.
  60. 60CatalystA substance that increases the rate of a reaction but does not take part in the reaction and so is re-usable.
  61. 61Cell signallingProcesses that lead to communication and coordination between cells. Hormones binding to their receptors on the cell surface membrane are an example.
  62. 62Cell surface membraneSee Plasma membrane.
  63. 63CelluloseA carbohydrate polymer (of ?-glucose) that forms plant cell walls.
  64. 64CentrioleAn organelle from which the spindle fibres develop during cell division in animal cells.
  65. 65CentromereThe region of a chromosome where two sister chromatids are joined together and where the spindle fibre attaches during cell division.
  66. 66Channel proteinA protein pore that spans a membrane through which very small ions and water soluble molecules may pass.
  67. 67ChemotaxisThe movement of cells or organisms towards or away from a particular chemical.
  68. 68Chloride shiftThe movement of chloride ions into red blood cells to balance the loss of hydrogencarbonate ions.
  69. 69ChlorophyllPigments found in chloroplasts of plant (and some protoctist) cells. Each molecule consists of a hydrocarbon tail and a porphyrin ring head with a magnesium atom. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light trapping the energy and reflects green light.
  70. 70ChloroplastAn organelle found in plants which contains chlorophyll and is responsible for photosynthetic activity in the plant.
  71. 71CholesterolA lipid molecule (not a triglyceride) found in all cell membranes and involved in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
  72. 72ChromatidA replicated chromosome appears as two strands in early stages of cell division. Each strand is a chromatid.
  73. 73ChromatinMaterial staining dark red in the nucleus during interphase of mitosis and meiosis. It consists of nucleic acids and proteins. Chromatin condenses into chromosomes during prophase of nucler division.
  74. 74ChromosomeA linear DNA molecule wrapped around histone proteins found in the nucleus. Chromosomes become visible in prophase of cell division.
  75. 75CiliaShort extensions of eukaryotic cells typically 2–10 ľm long and 0.03 ľm in diameter. They may be used for locomotion or to move fluids or mucus over a surface for example in the mammalian respiratory tract.
  76. 76Ciliated epitheliumEpithelial cells that have cilia on their cell surface.
  77. 77ClassTaxonomic group used in classification of living organisms. Members of the same class share some characteristics. Within each class are orders consisting of families genera and species. Similar classes are grouped into a phylum.
  78. 78ClassificationThe organisation of living organisms (or other items) into groups according to their shared similarities.
  79. 79Clonal expansionThe division of selected cells by mitosis to increase their numbers.
  80. 80Clonal selectionThe selection of cells (of the immune system) with a specific receptor site. These cells will undergo clonal expansion as part of the immune response.
  81. 81ClonesGenetically identical cells or individuals.
  82. 82CoenzymeAn organic non-protein molecule that binds temporarily with substrate to an enzyme active site. It is essential for enzyme activity.
  83. 83CofactorA molecule or ion that helps an enzyme to work. It may be an inorganic ion or an enzyme.
  84. 84CohesionThe attraction between water molecules due to hydrogen bonding.
  85. 85CollagenA structural fibrous protein found in connective tissue bones skin and cartilage. It accounts for 30% of body protein.
  86. 86Companion cellA cell in the phloem involved in actively loading sucrose into the sieve tube elements. The companion cell is closely associated with a phloem sieve element to which it is linked by many plasmodesmata.
  87. 87Competitive inhibitorA substance that reduces the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction by binding to the enzyme’s active site.
  88. 88Complementary (base / structure)Refers to structures that fit together because their shapes and/or charges match up. For example adenine and cytosine are complementary bases in DNA.
  89. 89Concentration gradientThe difference in concentration of a substance between two regions.
  90. 90CondensationA type of chemical reaction in which two molecules are joined together by means of a covalent bond to form a larger molecule and at the same time a water molecule is released.
  91. 91Connective tissueA type of tissue that consists of separate cells held together by a ground substance (matrix).
  92. 92Conservation ex situConservation in areas other than the natural habitat.
  93. 93Conservation in situConservation in the natural habitat.
  94. 94ConstrictTo make narrow. For example vasoconstriction is the narrowing of blood vessels.
  95. 95Continuous variationVariation between living organisms where there is a range of intermediates such as height hair colour and intelligence in humans. These characteristics are determined by many genes that interact. The expression of these genes is also influenced by the environment.
  96. 96ControlPart of an experimental investigation – set up to show that the variable being investigated is responsible for the change observed.
  97. 97Coronary arteriesArteries that carry blood to the heart muscle.
  98. 98CortexTissue in plant roots and stems between epidermis and vascular tissue.
  99. 99Cotransporter proteinA protein in a cell membrane that allows movement of one molecule when linked to the movement of another molecule in the same direction by active transport.
  100. 100Covalent bondA chemical bond formed by the sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms.
  101. 101CrenationState of animal cells when they have been immersed in a solution of lower water potential and have lost water by osmosis. They become shrivelled.
  102. 102CristaeThe folds found in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. Stalked particles containing ATP synthase are found on cristae.
  103. 103CytokinesHormone-like proteins produced by vertebrate (including mammalian) cells which are used for communication between cells allowing some cells to regulate the activities of others.
  104. 104CytokinesisThe division of the cell following nuclear division to form two new cells.
  105. 105CytosineA nitrogen-containing organic base found in nucleic acids. It pairs with guanine in DNA.
  106. 106CytoskeletonThe network of protein fibres and microtubules found within the cell that gives structure to the cell and is responsible for the movement of many materials within it.
  107. 107DeaminationRemoval of amine (NH2) group from an amino acid
  108. 108DenaturationAn irreversible change in the tertiary structure of a protein molecule. It leads to loss of function in most proteins.
  109. 109DeoxygenatedBlood with haemoglobin that carries no or little oxygen.
  110. 110DeoxyriboseThe 5-carbon sugar in DNA nucleotides.
  111. 111DiaphragmA sheet of muscular and fibrous tissue separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
  112. 112DiastoleThe period when the heart muscle in the ventricles is relaxing and blood pressure is at its lowest.
  113. 113DifferentiationThe development and changes seen in cells as they mature to form specialised cells.
  114. 114DiffusionThe net movement of molecules or ions in a gas or liquid from an area of high concentration to an area where they are less concentrated.
  115. 115Diffusion gradientThe gradient in molecular concentration (the difference in concentrations) that allows diffusion to occur.
  116. 116DilateTo make wider. For example vasodilation is when the lumens of blood vessels become wider.
  117. 117DipeptideA molecule consisting of two amino acids joined by a peptide bond.
  118. 118DiploidCells or organisms that have two copies of each chromosome in their nuclei.
  119. 119DisaccharideA molecule consisting of two monosaccharide sugars joined by a glycosidic bond.
  120. 120Discontinuous variationVariation between living organisms within a species where there are discrete categories and no intermediates e.g. blood grops A B AB or O in humans. This type of variation is determined by one gene.
  121. 121DiseaseA departure from full health.
  122. 122DissociationThe breakdown of a molecule into two molecules atoms or ions. For example the release of oxygen from oxyhaemoglobin.
  123. 123Dissociation curve (oxyhaemoglobin)The curve on a graph showing the proportion of haemoglobin that is saturated with oxygen at different oxygen tensions.
  124. 124DiversityBeing diverse – usually used in the context of biodiversity – where there are many different types of organisms present or genetic diversity within a population of organisms that have genetic variation.
  125. 125Division of labourAny system where different parts perform specialised functions each contributing to the functioning of the whole.
  126. 126DNADeoxyribonucleic acid – a polymer of nucleotide molecules that form the instructions for the synthesis of proteins found within organisms. These nucleotides contain the 5-carbon sugar deoxyribose.
  127. 127DomainClassification group. Carl Woese’s three-domain classification system divides the Kingdom prokaryotae into two domains and places all Eukaryotes in the third domain.
  128. 128Double circulatory systemA transport system in which blood travels twice through the heart for each complete circulation of the body.
  129. 129Double helixDescribes the structure of DNA a twisted helix of two strands with bases joining the strands.
  130. 130EcosystemAll the living organisms and all the non-living components in a specific area and their interactions.
  131. 131Elastic fibresLong fibres of the protein elastin that have the ability to stretch and recoil.
  132. 132Elastic tissueTissue containing the protein elastin which is able to stretch and recoil.
  133. 133ElectrocardiogramTrace (graph) showing the electrical activity of the heart muscle (atria and ventricles) during a cycle.
  134. 134EmulsionA suspension of one material in another as droplets because it does not dissolve. For example fat droplets dispersed in water.
  135. 135EndemicDescribes a disease that is always present in an area. May also mean a species that is found only in a particular area and nowhere else.
  136. 136EndocytosisThe process of taking materials into a cell by surrounding them with part of the plasma membrane which then pinches off to form a vesicle inside the cell. This is an active process requiring ATP.
  137. 137EndodermisA ring of cells between the cortex of a root and the area housing the xylem and phloem.
  138. 138Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)A series of membrane-bound flattened sacs extending from the outer nuclear membrane through the cytoplasm. It may appear rough (rough ER) when ribosomes are attached to the outer surface and it is involved with synthesis of proteins. It may appear smooth (smooth ER) when ribosomes are not attached and it is involved with lipid metabolism or membrane formation.
  139. 139EndotheliumA tissue that lines the inside of a structure such as a blood vessel.
  140. 140EndothermAn animal that produces heat within its cells from respiration to maintain a constant body temperature.
  141. 141End-product inhibitionThe regulation of metabolic pathways where the last product in a sequence of enzyme-controlled reactions becomes an inhibitor of one of the enzymes earlier in the sequence.
  142. 142Environmental impact assessmentAn assessment of the damage that may be caused to the (local) environment by a proposed development.
  143. 143EnzymeA protein molecule that acts as a biological catalyst.
  144. 144Enzyme–product complexThe intermediate structure in which product molecules are bound to an enzyme molecule.
  145. 145Enzyme–substrate complexThe intermediate structure formed when a substrate molecule binds to an enzyme molecule.
  146. 146EpidemicDescribes a disease that spreads to many people quickly and affects a large proportion of the population.
  147. 147EpidemiologyThe study of patterns of disease and the factors that influence their spread.
  148. 148EpidermisOuter layer(s) of cells of a multicellular organism. Plants have a single layer surrounding the tissues of roots stems and leaves. Invertebrates have an epidermis made of a single layer of cells that secrete a cuticle. Vertebrate (including mammals) epidermis consists of several layers the outer layer being made of dead cells.
  149. 149EpitheliumA tissue that covers the outside of a structure.
  150. 150ErythrocytesRed blood cells.
  151. 151Ester bondThe bond formed when fatty acid molecules are joined to glycerol molecules in condensation reactions.
  152. 152Ethanol emulsion testA biochemical test for the presence of lipids.
  153. 153EukaryoteAn organism having cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
  154. 154Eukaryotic cellCells that have a nucleus inside a nuclear envelope and other membrane-bound organelles.
  155. 155EvolutionGradual process by which the present diversity of living organisms arose from simple primitive organisms that were present about 4000 million years ago. New species have arisen by natural selection.
  156. 156Evolutionary distanceA measure of how far apart two organisms are on the evolutionary scale. Closely related species will be a short distance apart while distant relatives will be further apart.
  157. 157Exchange surfaceA specialised area adapted to make it easier for molecules to cross from one side of the surface to the other.
  158. 158ExocytosisThe process of removing materials from the cell by fusing vesicles containing the material with the plasma membrane (cell surface membrane).
  159. 159ExtinctionThe death of the last individual in a species.
  160. 160ExtracellularOutside the cell. Extracellular enzymes/digestion work outside the cell.
  161. 161Facilitated diffusionThe passive movement of molecules across membranes down their concentration gradient which is aided by transport (carrier) protein molecules. No metabolic energy is required.
  162. 162FamilyTaxonomic group used in the classification of living organisms. Related genera are placed in the same family.
  163. 163FatMixture of lipids mainly triglycerides with saturated fatty acids that is solid at body temperature. In living organisms they act as an energy store insulation waterproofing the outer layer and may give buoyancy.
  164. 164Fatty acidA molecule consisting of a fatty (hydrocarbon) chain and an acid (carboxylic acid ?COOH) group.
  165. 165FermenterA vessel used to grow microorganisms in large numbers.
  166. 166FertiliserA substance added to soil to enhance the growth of plants.
  167. 167FibrillationA state in which the chambers in the heart contract out of rhythm.
  168. 168Fibrous proteinA protein with a relatively long thin structure which is insoluble in water and metabolically inactive often having a structural role within the organism.
  169. 169FlaccidA term used to describe plant tissue where the cells have lost turgor and are not firm.
  170. 170Fluid mosaic (model)The model of cell membrane structure proposed by Singer and Nicholson – a phospholipid bilayer with proteins ‘floating’ in it.
  171. 171Food testsSimple tests that show the presence of various biological molecules in samples or structures.
  172. 172GameteSex cells usually haploid (one set of chromosomes). Male and female gametes can fuse during sexual reproduction to form zygotes (diploid).
  173. 173Gaseous exchangeThe movement of gases by diffusion across a barrier such as the atreous wall.
  174. 174Gated channelsProtein channels found in cell membranes which can be opened or closed in response to cell signals.
  175. 175GeneA length of DNA that carries the code for the synthesis of one (or more) specific polypeptide.
  176. 176Gene poolThe sum total and variety of all the genes in a population or species at a given time.
  177. 177Genetic erosionThe loss of genetic variation due to (artificial) selection.
  178. 178GenomeAll the genetic material inside an organism (or cell).
  179. 179GenusTaxonomical group used in the classification of living organisms. Species that are similar are placed in the same genus.
  180. 180Globular proteinsProteins with relatively spherical molecules soluble in water often having metabolic roles in organisms.
  181. 181GlucoseA 6-carbon monosaccharide sugar.
  182. 182GlycerolA 3-carbon (alcohol) molecule. It forms the basis of lipids when fatty acids are bonded to it.
  183. 183GlycogenA polysaccharide found in animal cells. Formed from the bonding together of many glucose molecules used as a store of glucose.
  184. 184GlycolipidA lipid with carbohydrate molecules attached.
  185. 185GlycoproteinA protein with carbohydrate molecules attached.
  186. 186Glycosidic bondThe covalent bond formed when carbohydrate molecules are joined together in condensation reactions.
  187. 187Goblet cellsMucus-secreting cells in epithelial tissue.
  188. 188Golgi bodyMembrane-bound organelle in eukaryote cells. Its functions are: to modify proteins made at the rough endoplasmic reticulum into glycoproteins; to package proteins for secretions outside the cell; to make lysosomes; in plant cells to secrete carbohydrates that make up the cell walls.
  189. 189GuanineA nitrogen-containing organic base found in nucleic acids. It pairs with cytosine.
  190. 190Guard cellsIn pairs these form the stomatal pore in the epidermis plants. They control the opening and closing of the pore by changes in their turgidity.
  191. 191HabitatThe place where an organism or population lives. It includes the climatic topographic and edaphic factors as well as the plants and animals that live there.
  192. 192HaemThe iron-containing prosthetic group found in haemoglobin.
  193. 193HaemoglobinThe protein that carries oxygen in the red blood cells.
  194. 194Haemoglobinic acidThe acid produced when haemoglobin takes up hydrogen ions.
  195. 195Haemolysis(First observed in red blood cells.) The rupturing of animal cell surface membranes and subsequent release of their contents when animal cells are placed in a solution of higher water potential and water enters by osmosis.
  196. 196HaploidA cell or organism that has one set of chromosomes/one copy of each chromosome.
  197. 197HealthComplete mental physical and social wellbeing.
  198. 198HerbivoreAn animal that eats plant material.
  199. 199HeterotrophOrganism that has heterotrophic nutrition – it gains nutrients from complex organic molecules. These molecules are digested by enzymes to simple soluble molecules and then built up into the complex molecules that the organism requires. Heterotrophs are consumers or decomposers in a food chain.

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Almost every word in AQA A-Level biology and its definition.
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Cameron Rogers
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