Flashcards
Grammar of English Flashcards
Cards in this deck (146)
- 1Standard EnglishThe "technically correct" form of English
- 2pronunciationhow we say words
- 3vocabularywords we know
- 4grammarthe rules that determine how the language is put together
- 5formal stylehow the language is supposed to be spoken
- 6informal stylehow the language is actually spoken in casual situations
- 7descriptive approachfocuses on simply describing the features of the language as it is currently used
- 8prescriptive approachfocuses on prescribing how the language should actually be used rather than how it is used
- 9talking in a "static" wayso that you are understood, on a same level with the other person
- 10talking in a "dynamic" waywanting to sound better, sacrificing clarity for the rules
- 11speech communitya group of people who share the same language or variety of language
- 12accentpattern of pronunciation that is associated with a particular speech community
- 13dialectthe set of grammatical and lexical features that mark the variety of language used by a speech community
- 14diachronicvariation across time
- 15synchronicvariation across space (geographical or social)
- 16aspects of user-related variation in a language1. function and purpose
2. subject matter
3. mode
4. context
5. relationship between speakers
6. values and attitudes of speakers - 17registerthe content of language associated with a particular group of people (eg the register of sports commentators vs the register of lawyers)
- 18lexememental dictionary entry - multiple words can belong to one lexeme
- 19worda meaningful unit that has meaning when it stands alone
- 20morphemesmallest grammatical unit of a language
- 21how do you know if something is a single morphemeit has only one meaning associated with it
- 22the three types of affixesprefixes
suffixes
infixes - 23inflectional affixchanges the details of the word (eg tense, number) but not its meaning or part of speech
- 24derivational / lexical affixchanges the word's part of speech or meaning
- 25affixationthe adding of morphemes to modify the grammar or meaning of a word
- 26compoundingputting two words together to make one
- 27conversiona word changes its part of speech based on context, not based on its own change (can you action this for me)
- 28stem modificationemphasis changes in the word and therefore changes meaning (rebel or rebel)
- 29suppletionirregular forms that aren't normal (child - children)
- 30syncretismsome things change depending on where they are in the sentence while others don't (he saw you, you saw him)
- 31the nine inflectional affixes1. -s
2. -ed
3. -ing
4. -en
5. -s
6. -'s
7. -s'
8. -er
9. -est - 32what does a phrase consist of?a head and dependents
- 33open classesclasses which are open to having new words adapted (like nouns and verbs)
- 34closed classesclasses which are very hard to have new words inserted (like coordinators)
- 35clitic" 's " - it is a clitic because it attaches not to the noun that it refers to, but to the end of the noun phrase (Sarah and Caroline's view)
- 36notional approachbased on meaning
- 37prototypebest examples of a word class
- 38formhow something is presented in a sentence (eg noun phrase, verbal element)
- 39functionsomething's role in the sentence (eg subject, object)
- 40verbal elementthe verb of the sentence - can just have a lexical verb or may be accompanied by auxiliary verbs
- 41lexical verbthe verb that carries the meaning of the action (run, hit, hide)
- 42auxiliary verbadds extra grammatical information
- 43what are the three main auxiliary verbs?do, have, be
- 44what are the main modal verbs?can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must, ought, dare
- 45simple sentencecontains only one clause
- 46compound sentencecontains at least two coordinated clauses
- 47how do you know if something is one clauseit has only one verbal element in it
- 48all compound sentences have at least one...coordinator
- 49correct format for outlining the clauses of a sentence< [I saw the cat] and [I hugged it.] >
- 50complex sentencecontains one or more subordinate clauses
- 51how do the clauses work in a complex sentence?there is one main clause, which is in charge, and one or more subordinate clauses
- 52compound-complex sentencecontains one or more subordinate clauses and two or more coordinated clauses
- 53what is the matrix verbal elementthe one that the main subject is doing
- 54steps to identifying a clause1. find all verbal elements
2. determine which is the matrix element
3. use substitution (it)
or, pretend each verbal element is the matrix verbal element, and see which one makes sense. - 55properties of a basic (canonical) clauseforms a sentence on its own
one single clause, no subordinates
structurally complete
declarative only
positive, not negative
unmarked with respect to thematic variation - 56main functions that can be found within a clausesubject
object
predicate
predicator
complement
adjunct (adverbial)
non-central complement - 57features of a subject (in a basic clause)always precedes the verb
necessary in English
noun phrase
singular / plural verb agreement
pronoun case
yes-no questions swap the subject around
repeated as a pronoun in tag questions - 58predicatethe verb phrase (communicates something else about the subject)
eg "leapt away", "marched to the cave" - 59predicatorthe actual verbal element
eg "leapt", "marched" - 60complementan element that the verb requires for the clause to make sense
eg "Fred felt sick" vs "*Fred felt". - 61adjunct / adverbialan element that adds extra to the clause but isn't necessary
eg "the [brown] cat" - 62objectusually follows the predicator
noun phrase
pronoun case
can be shifted to the front of a clause in passive sentences
can use a dummy noun (eg it)
can be direct or indirect - 63difference between direct and indirect objectsdirect object: the noun phrase directly affected by the action - "chicken soup"
indirect object: the beneficiary of the action - "her"
If both are in a sentence, indirect comes before direct.
"I offered her chicken soup." - 64how do you tell if something is a proper noun?it has a capital first letter
it doesn't usually take a determiner - 65how do you tell if something is a verb?you can change its tense
- 66difference between adjective and adverbadjectives describe nouns, adverbs describe everything else
adverbs can be moved around in the sentence while adjectives can't - 67how do you test if something is a modal verb?it will be able to have "n't" added to it
eg could, couldn't - 68what do pronouns replace?a noun phrase
- 69how to test if something is the part of speech I think it isreplace it with another word of the same form and see if the sentence is grammatical
- 70what do subordinators do?they introduce a new clause
- 71what four factors can be used to describe nouns?person
case
gender
plurality - 72how do you tell if something is a noun?it can be pluralised
it can take determiners - 73nominative caseused for the subject of a sentence
"Anne/she went to the shop."
and for the subject compliment
"Bill is a policeman", because it is still about the subject (Bill). - 74genitive caseshows possession
"This is Anne's/her bag." - 75accusative caseused for the object of a sentence
"I visited Anne/her." - 76vocative caseused when the speaker is addressing someone directly. must be separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.
"Anne, come here." - 77which sorts of objects can become the subject in a passivized sentence?objects and indirect objects. prepositional phrases can't.
- 78how do you know if something is a predicate complement?it describes an entity already referred to in the sentence.
when it is a noun phrase, it agrees in number with the thing it refers to. - 79what are the basic clause patterns for different types of verbs?intransitive (ordinary intransitive)
transitive (mono transitive)
complex-intransitive (copulative)
ditransitive
complex-transitive - 80intransitive clause structureS + P
- 81transitive clause structureS + P + O
- 82complex-intransitive clause structureS + P + PCs
- 83ditransitive clause structureS + P + Oi + Od
- 84complex-transitive clause structureS + P + O + PCo
- 85how do you use yes-no questions to tell what the subject is?if you turn the sentence into a yes-no question, the structure will be:
aux verb - subject - verb - 86what are the types of non-central complement?locative
temporal
PP complement
phrasal verbs
catenative verbs - 87locative / temporal complementslook like they can be removed and the sentence will make grammatical sense, but the meaning won't.
(the path goes... around the field) - 88phrasalverb + adverb particle
- 89prepositional verbverb + prepositional phrase
- 90phrasal-prepositional verbsverb + adverb particle + PP complement
- 91catenative verba verb that takes a non-finite complement
- 92how do you know if something is a constituent?it can be substituted with one word
it can be moved around - 93three types of auxiliary verbsmodal, non-primary, semi-auxiliary
- 94structure of a noun phrasedeterminers
modifiers
head
dependents - 95how do you know which noun is the head of a noun phrase?1. it controls verb agreement
2. it is essential to convey the meaning of the clause
3. which noun is the verb related to? - 96what are the different uses of pronouns?anaphoric reference
cataphoric reference
deictic reference - 97anaphoric referencereferring back to something that has already been introduced
- 98cataphoric referencereferring to something that will be introduced later
- 99deictic referencethe use of the pronoun is relevant to context
- 100nominala unit intermediate between the NP and the noun (in a syntax tree)
- 101properties of a common nouninflected for number and genitive case
countability - 102different types of nouns that contain numeric propertiescount nouns
non-count (mass) nouns
invariable nouns (both singular and plural)
quantificational nouns (occur as part of an "of PP"
collective nouns
two linked nouns - 103impersonal subject"it" when used as a dummy marker - "it is raining"
- 104existential marker"there" when used to say that something exists - "there is a cat"
- 105functions of "it"anaphoric reference
cataphoric reference
deictic reference
empty 'it' - 106types of pronounspersonal (nom and acc)
genitive (strong and weak)
reflexive
demonstrative
interrogative
relative
indefinite
reciprocal - 107genitive pronounstrong form: functions as head of a NP
weak form: normally functions as determiner - 108reflexive pronounbasic - I made myself some tea.
emphatic - I myself love tea. - 109demonstrative pronounsthis, that, these, those
- 110interrogative pronounswho, whom, which, whose
- 111indefinite pronounssomeone, nothing, everybody, none
- 112reciprocal pronounseach other, one another
- 113types of determinativesdefinite and indefinite articles
demonstrative
quantifying
cardinal numerals
fractions
multipliers
interrogative and relative (which, whichever) - 114predeterminersdeterminers that alter other determiners in a NP
eg: "both those copies" - 115determinative phrase (DP)a determiner is the head of a phrase, and it contains other dependents (such as another determiner)
- 116examples of genitive NP / genitive caseclitics
periphrastic ('of' - the name of the ship)
genitives of measure (the length of the table) - 117syntactic constructions within the genitive caseattributive "old folk's home"
predicative "this is Carol's"
subject in a subordinate clause
oblique (double genitive) "that proposal of Brad's"
fused determiner-head (ellipsis is used) - 118pre-head modifierany word of phrase appearing between the determiner(s) and the head of the NP
- 119fused-head constructions / fused-head NPsthe head of the NP is 'fused' with the determiner and is not actually stated in the sentence - "four boys played croquet and two played tennis"
- 120two main types of fused-head constructionscompound forms (determiner + head) eg "somebody"
fused modifier-head (modifier + missing head) eg "she wanted the purple blanket but I wanted the pink" - 121post-head dependentany word or phrase that appears after the head noun within a noun phrase
- 122appositionwhen the post-head dependent is the same thing as the head of the NP - "Sally, the owner of the shop, came to see me".
- 123types of appositionequivalent meaning
rewording
one is an attribute of the other
one includes the other - 124difference between complements and modifierscomplements only occur when a phrase is needed for the sentence / noun to make sense, modifiers just add extra information
- 125peripheral dependentextra information which is separated by commas (sort of like parentheses)
- 126nominalisationwhen the carrying out of an action is reworded as a noun phrase
- 127attributive adjectivefunctions as pre-head dependent
"the happy person" - 128predicative adjectiveeither subject or object predicate
"the person was happy" - 129postpositive adjectivepost-head dependent
"someone very intelligent" - 130central adjectivecan be both attributive and predicative
- 131peripheral adjectivecan only function as attributive or predicative
- 132inflectional and analytical adjective modificationinflectional - er, est
analytical - more, most, less, least - 133what pre-head dependents do adjectives take?almost always just adverbs
- 134what post-head dependents do adjectives take?PPs
degree adverbs
subordinate clauses - 135discontinuous adjective phrasean adjective and its post-head dependent are separated by the thing being described
"a higher mark than she needed" - 136what are the three types of non-prototypical adjectives?intensifying adjectives
downtoner adjectives
limiter adjectives
they modify the entire NP, not just the noun. - 137morphological properties of adverbsmany inflect for grade (sooner, soonest)
many are derived from adjectives - 138functions of an adverbverb modifier
complement of a verb
modifier of the head of an adjective phrase
modifier of the head of an adverb phrase
adjunct - 139what pre-head dependents does an adverb phrase take?adverb as modifier
- 140what post-head dependents does an adverb phrase take?prepositional phrase
subordinate clause - 141conjunctive adverbsestablish relevance between two sentences/utterances
"however, moreover, therefore" etc - 142disjunctan adverb phrase that provides a 'comment frame'
"obviously, ..." - 143what are the subclasses of modifying adverbs (which modify adjectives and adverbs)?intensifiers
downtoners
qualifiers
comparisons
negators - 144fossilised prepositional idioma preposition made up of two or more words
"in front of, in league with" - 145complements of a prepositionnoun phrase
adverb phrase
another prepositional phrase - 146preposition strandingthe preposition and the NP they modify are separated in the sentence
"the house I live in"
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- Grammar of English Flashcards on Grammar of English Flashcards, created by C L on 26/02/2018.
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