Issues and Debates 16-marker Plans (AQA A Level Psychology)

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Nature vs. nurture

Outline

What is the debate?- whether behaviour is influenced by our experiences or determined by inherited genetic factors.

What is nature?- The belief that behaviour is inherited; it could be present at birth or develop through maturation. People who support this view are called nativists

What is nurture?- The belief that we are born 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) and our behaviour is influenced through sensory experiences in our environment. People who support this view are called empiricists

Evidence from topics for nature- dopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia OR Lombroso's atavistic explanation of offending OR Bowlby's monotropy theory OR the brain sex theory for gender development- there are other options to pick from, these are just the ones I'm best at and that seemed most obvious

Evidence from topics for nurture- token economy as treatment for schizophrenia OR the learning theory for attachment (Dollard and Miller's food leads to attachment theory) OR influence of culture and media on gender OR the behaviourist explanation for phobias (conditioning)

Interactionist approach- nature and nurture interact and influence one another (e.g. twin studies in which both the environment and genes affect behaviour)

Evidence from topics for interactionist approach- Kohlberg's theory of gender development (maturation and observation) OR interactionist approach of schizophrenia (diathesis stress model- genetic vulnerability+ family/cognitive dysfunction)

Evaluation

Empiricism led to the development of therapies- unlike nature, therapies like CBT treat the cause, and not just the symptoms.

Taking an interactionist approach explains how an individual may have a genetic vulnerability for a disorder but not develop it.

Nativist view is deterministic and has led to epigenetics in the past

Drawing conclusions without debate is difficult e.g. twin studies- what is the true cause of the behaviour?

Implications/ counterarguments of research- the dopamine hypothesis led to the development of drug therapies for schizophrenia, however they aren't 100% effective so we can conclude that nurture may also play a role in developing schizophrenia. The behaviourist explanation for phobias enabled the creation of systematic desensitisation.

Free will vs. determinism

Outline

What is the debate?- whether behaviour is caused by a person's own volition, or controlled by forces outside an individual's control

What is biological determinism?- behaviour is caused by biological factors such as genes and hormones. For example, innate drives (hunger drive) leads to attachment

Evidence of biological determinism- MAOA gene for crime. However, this is incompatible with the legal system as it removes responsibility from the offender.

What is environmental determinism?- behaviour is caused by environmental factors

Evidence of environmental determinism- conditioning for phobias. This led to the development of systematic desensitisation as a treatment, although the role of biological factors is ignored.

What is free will?- people are self-determining. This is good for our psychological well-being.

Evaluation

Humanists claim that believing we have free will improves psychological well-being. Roberts (2000) found that adolescents with a fatalistic view had a higher risk of depression

Libert (1985) found evidence against free will through brain scans- people's brains made decisions before they consciously knew they'd made the decision.

Determinism is consistent with science as general laws can be established, and we can therefore predict and control behaviour

Determinism is incompatible with the legal system (it removes responsibility from the offender)

Idiographic vs nomothetic

Outline

What is the debate?- idiographic approach focuses on individual personal experiences, while the nomothetic approach aims to make general laws on human behaviour

Methods used- idiographic research uses qualitative data, case studies, and unstructured interviews, while the nomothetic approach uses scientific methods such as experiments

Example for the idiographic approach- humanistic approach and client-centred therapy

Example for the nomothetic approach- behaviourism and biological approach

Evaluation

Idiographic

Idiographic approach can challenge nomothetic approach- David Reimer challenges socio-psychological theories

Hard to generalise meaningfully- little predictive value

Nomothetic

Scientific methods e.g. systematic desensitisation

Loses sight of the individual's experiences

Holt (1967) said that many approaches use both nomothetic and idiographic views, such as the cognitive approach- using idiographic techniques to create general laws e.g. case studies into memory in order to understand it better (Wearing)

Holism vs reductionism

Outline

What is the debate?- breaking complex behaviour into units (reductionism) vs. considering whole experience

Example for holistic approach- humanistic approach+ client-centred therapy

Types of reductionism- biological and environmental

Example for reductionist approach- biological reductionism for schizophrenia- dopamine hypothesis

Evaluation

Holism

Explains social behaviours like conformity to social roles- we can't understand group behaviour if we study individual members out of context

Doesn't establish causation so difficult to develop appropriate therapies

Reductionism

Economical- drug therapies are cheaper than others

Scientific credibility

Biological reductionism leads to errors- it ignores the complexity of human behaviour by mistaking symptoms for cause. This is highlighted by varying levels of success for drug therapies

Combining different levels of reductionism leads to more holistic treatments e.g. family therapy+ drug therapy

Gender Bias

Outline

What is the issue?- the differential treatment/representation of males/females based on stereotypes and not real differences. This undermines psychology's claim of universality.

Example of alpha bias- exaggerates differences between males and females. Freud's theory that girls can't feel castration anxiety so don't identify as strongly with the same sex parent, therefore forming a weak superego and having fewer morals.

Example of beta bias- ignores/ minimises differences between males and females. Asch generalised male findings to females. This leads to androcentrism- theories based on men are classed as normal, so females are misunderstood.

Evaluation

Reflexivity helps overcome bias- recognising it occurs ensures we can minimise its effects

Negative implications- misleading assumptions are made; diagnosis of women with depression uses the DSM and ICD, both of which are based on male samples.

Sexism within research- males predominate at senior research level in psychology so follow male concerns. There is also publishing bias for research which shows differences do exist between males and females.

Attempts to overcome gender bias still require more effort to improve the claim of universality

Culture Bias

Outline

What is the issue?- the tendency to judge people in terms of one's own cultural assumptions. 64% of the world's psychologists are Western- this undermines the claim of universality

When does culture bias occur?- Assuming an emic construct (behaviour specific to one culture) is actually an etic construct (behaviour that is universal), resulting in imposed etic. Mead used Western methods and understanding when researching gender in Papua New Guinea

Ethnocentrism- Takes behaviour of one's own culture as normal and others are considered deficient and abnormal. Ainsworth's Strange Situation considers German mothers to be cold and distant, hence the high levels of insecure avoidant attachment in children, however this may just be a sign of independence

Cultural relativism- solves culture bias; can't judge behaviour properly unless viewed in the context of the culture it originated from. For example, when defining crime

Evaluation

Negative consequences of culture bias- African-Americans are diagnosed with Western ICD+ DSM for schizophrenia, however in some African cultures, hallucinations are seen as good, and a way of communicating with ancestors/gods/spirits

Methodological issues- carrying out research in different cultures doesn't always indicate whether a behaviour is universal.

Nowadays, there is less culture bias, although it still needs to decrease further. Psychologists no longer distinguish between collectivist and individualist cultures.

Ethical implications of research studies and theories

Outline

Ethical implications- considering the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in the wider context, not just for the participants taking part

Socially sensitive research- studies where there are potential social consequences for the participants or the group of people represented by the research e.g. genetic explanations of offending means violent crimes may not lead to convictions, or may lead to genetic engineering to avoid genetic transmission

It is argued that psychologists have social responsibility to carry out this type of research , despite its negative implications

Sieber and Stanley (1988) studied factors that should be considered when conducting socially sensitive research:

Implications: ensure research doesn't give credence to prejudice or discrimination, although it is sometimes hard to predict- Milgram's study- obedience alibi for Nazis

Uses/public policies: what the research is likely to be used for- the findings may be adopted by the government, although it is sometimes hard to predict- Bowlby's maternal deprivation led to the introduction of key workers, and mothers being more likely to get custody of child

Validity of research: ensure research is objective and value-free- Ainsworth's Strange Situation was based on Western values

Evaluation

There are benefits to socially sensitive research- studies of under-represented groups can actually promote greater sensitivity and understanding. There are also great benefits to society e.g. Rosenhan's Being Sane in Insane Places led to revision of the DSM

Negative consequences- certain groups may be marginalised or not adequately considered. It can also lead to social control e.g. sterilisation of citizens with a low IQ in the 1920/30s

BPS code of ethics and university ethics board aims to minimise the risk of negative implications and they weigh up losses vs. benefits, and check researchers have adhered to guidelines.