Merton believed that all
members of society share
the same values and goals.
Merton calls this 'Value
consensus'.
CRITIQUE
His theories also to
deterministic – not everyone
will respond as he said
It ignores the power
of the ruling class to
criminalise the poor.
And it assumes that
everyone believes in this
value consensus of shared
goals but some may reject
it and therefore feel no
strain
Goals of
society -
AMERICAN
DREAM
Merton's
5 responses to the
American Dream
CONFORMITY: they strive
for success in conventional
ways and are not deviant.
AKA: most of America not
criminal or deviant.
INNOVATORS: they develop new ways of achieving
success. They are likely to be w/c. They desire goals
of society however can't achieve educational
success. They turn to crime t become wealthy. AKA:
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR AS AN ADAPTION.
RITUALISM: they are the lower-middle class
people and have been socialised into the
means of society but they can't achieve
success. Consequently, they give up on goals
of success and this makes them deviant.
They stick to the rules but aren't committed
to the dream. E.G. people in dead end jobs.
RETREATISM: some may accept
both goals an means but can't
achieve success. They may become
made, drop out, become homeless
and/or withdraw from society. E.G. drug users
REBELLION: these
individuals will seek to
replace the existing goals of
society with new ones. They
are truly deviant. E.G martin luther king
Deviance is a result of the
strain between the goals of
society and the means of
achieving those goals.
Merton believed that strain
produces a frustration (status
frustration) which creates the
pressure be deviant. STRAIN TO
ANOMIE.
He believes that human
behaviour is naturally bad
and society civilises through
the socialisation process.
Crime is inevitable
and necessary
(Inevitable as not
everyone has same
norms and values).
Crime has positive
functions.
The perfect amount of
crime will keep society
healthy.
Individualism is bad
according to the
functionalist theory as it
demonstrates that we
are operating outside of
the norms and values in
society that regulates us.
NOTE: Durkheim
was writing at the
END of the
industrial
revolution, this is
where rapid
change is evident
(he was writing at
a time where
crime was high)
he saw that crime
was a problem of
modernity (the
transformation
into an
industrialist
society)
He developed the term
“anomie” to explain why some
people become “unfuntional”
and turn to crime, anomie
means “normlessness which is
individualism”.
Crime can be...
Inevitable – will
always exist.
Universal- Exist
everywhere (only where
there is written laws).
Functional –
limited about of
crime is good.
Relative – It’s a social
construction
(changes).
Consensus crimes -> a
crime which is viewed
as sociological
abhorrent that it
“galvanises” society (for
example paedophilia).
CRITIQUE
Durkheim’s work is
important for offering a
social dimension of
crime.
Crime is a consequence of
social processes (eg anomie,
rapid social change)
He links anomie to a
deregulated, more
individualistic, industrial
society .
He however cannot
explain why some
people are more
deviant than others.
Hard to
determine the
“perfect amount
of crime”.
Explaining the
functions of crime
doesn’t explain what
causes it in the first
place.
Durkheim didn’t explain why
some groups are more prone to
deviance within certain groups
(Merton however provided the
answers within a functionalist
framework).
LABELLING THEORY
HOWARD
BECKER (1963)
Howard Becker (1963)
social groups create
deviance by creating
rules and applying them
to particular people
whom they label as
‘outsiders’. Therefore an
act or person only
becomes deviant when
labelled by others as
deviant.
Labelling theorists are interested in
the role of what Becker calls moral
entrepreneurs. These are people
who lead a moral ‘crusade’ to
change the law in the belief that it
will benefit those to whom it is
applied.• The new law however has
two effects:1. Creation of a new
group of ‘outsiders’- outlaws or
deviants who break the new rule2.
The creation or expansion of a social
control agency (police) to enforce
the rule and impose labels on
offenders.
It is not the harmfulness of a
behaviour that leads to new
laws being created, but rather
the efforts of powerful
individuals and groups to
redefine that behaviour as
unacceptable.
Differential
Enforcement•
Labelling theorists
argue that social
control agencies
(police, courts etc)
tend to label certain
groups as criminal.
EFFECTS OF
BEING
LABELLED
Labelling Theorists claim that by
labelling certain people as criminal
or deviant society encourages them
to become more so.
Primary Deviance- deviant acts
that have not been publicly
labelled. They may have many
causes, are often trivial and
mostly go uncaught e.g. fare
dodging. Those who commit them
do not usually see themselves as
deviant.
Secondary Deviance- results from
societal reaction i.e. from labelling.
Labelling someone as an offender can
involve stigmatising and excluding
them from normal society. Others may
see the offender solely in terms of the
label, which becomes the individuals
master status or controlling identity.
Self Fulfilling Prophecy•
Being labelled may provoke a
crisis for the individuals self
concept and lead to sfp in
which they live up to the
label, resulting in secondary
deviance• Further societal
reaction may reinforce the
individuals outsider status
and lead them to joining a
deviant sub culture that offer
support, role models and a
deviant career.
LEMERT &
YOUNG
Lemert and Young illustrates the idea
that it is not the act itself, but the
hostile societal reaction by the social
audience, that created serious
deviance.• Ironically therefore, the
social control processes that are meant
to produce law- abiding behaviour may
in fact produce the very opposite.
Although a deviant career is a common
outcome of labelling, labelling theorists
are quick to point out that it is not
inevitable.
Deviance
Amplification
Deviance Amplification- the
attempt to control deviance leads
to it increasing rather than
decreasing, resulting in grater
attempts to control it and in turn
more deviance e.g. Hippies
Deviance Amplification is
similar to secondary deviance.
In both cases the societal
reaction to an initial deviant act
leads not to successful control
of the deviance but to further
deviance which in turns leads to
greater reaction etc.
Differences between Labelling
and Functionalism• Functionalists
see deviance producing social
control• Labelling Theorists see
control producing further
deviance.
CRITIQUE
Shows that crime statistics are
more a record of activities of
control agents not that of
criminals.
Focuses on the
underachievers or
people who are
regarded as lower
in society.
Doesn’t look at
the motives for
why people
commit crime.
The emphasis on the
negative effects of
labelling gives the
offender a kind of
victim status, thus
ignoring the real
victims of crime.
It implies that deviants are
unaware that they are
deviant until labelled, yet
most are well aware that
they are going against social
norms.
MEDIA
The mass media plays an
important role in shaping
ideas, fears and
fascinations about crime in
society.
The media plays an important role in
“sensitising” the public into
perceiving and reports certain
activities as crime. (Bex says don’t
trust everything you read!).
Deviancy
amplification
Deviancy amplification was devised
by Leslie Wilkins (1964) to describe
how agencies like the police and
media can generate an increase in
deviance. The resulting publicity
has potential; to increase deviant
behaviour by “glamorising” it or
making it common or acceptable.
Stan Cohen
(1970)
Moral panic is a false or
exaggerated idea that some
groups behaviour is deviant
and is menace to society
(*cough* ISIS *cough).
He used “folk devil” to refer to such groups
(or individuals) (*cough* Jihad John *cough*)
Moral panic sis generally fuelled by media
coverage of society issues 1.Result of moral
panic makes you spend more money (eg
safety) 2.Media brainwashes.
MORAL
CRUSADERS
As media creates a
moral panic, they
may embark on
moral crusades
against the folk
devils The outcome
is to swell public
opinion and for the
authorities to
embark upon a
moral “clampdown”
on deviance.
MAP
Moral Panic -> creates a folk devil
-> Produces strain and
subcultures
Moral panic - media
Folk devil - group singles
out -underclass (w/c boys,
SPF, muslims).
CRITIQUE
Structuralists argue that the
social institutions of mass
media play an important role
in supporting the other social
institutions within society.
Post Modernist theorist would
argue that it is outdated as
most sociological theory
ignores the digital revolution.
Marxist argue that the media is part
of the “ideological state apparatus”
(meaning where a social institution
can control our ideology - ideas and
beliefs (e.g religion, media, education
etc).
Post modernist argue it has reduced
dependency amplification due to the
saturation of information from social
network media (we are becoming more
desensitised) .
The individual is no longer
persuaded by social institutions
the are their own cognitive
power/expert.
This reinforces Becks
“risk society” we are in a
state of individual and
personal panic.
CONTROL THEORY
HIRCHI
The central question of
the theory asks why do
people follow the law?
AKA WHY DON'T PEOPLE
COMMIT CRIME
#HATEGOODYTOOSHOES
The theory suggests that people
engage in criminal activity when
their bond to society has
weakened. “social control theory
refers to a perspective which
predicts that when social
constraints on antisocial behavior
are weakened or absent,
delinquent behavior emerges.”
AKA: when an individual has
experienced a lack of social
connections or a lack of social
network that would normally
prohibit criminal activity, the
likelihood that the individual
will participate in criminal
activity increases.
FOUR SOCIAL
BONDS THAT
KEEP SOCIETY
TOGETHER
ATTACHMENT: The internalization
of norms, conscience, and super
ego is determined by an
individual’s attachment to others.
Hirschi says this is the sociological
counterpart to the superego.
COMMITMENT-People obey
rules for fear the
consequences of breaking
them. This is the counterpart
to the ego.
INVOLVEMENT:a person’s
personal involvement in
conventional activity. Hirschi
states that an individual
involved heavily in
conventional activity simply
does not have time to engage
in deviant behavior.
BELIEF: a common value system within a
culture. Belief plays a role in deviance in2
ways. The criminal either a) disregards the
beliefs he/she has been taught entirely, or
b)rationalizes their deviant behavior so that
they can engage in criminal activity and still
believe that it is wrong. This subset of the
social control theory involves the strain theory
in that it demonstrates an individuals belief in
common goals and morals of society, and it
shows a lack of means for achieving those
goals which in turn encourages deviant
behavior as a means of achieving those goals.
CRITIQUE
Mothers should also
not be criminal
outside fraud Middle
class is the most
successful ascribed
class.
The theory does
not explain all
types of crime,
such as White
Collar Crime.
The 4 variables are
confusing. Their titles
imply a more internalized
bond than Hirschi actually
meant.
It excludes the upper
class or doesn’t explain
how they are criminal
as they are the most
successful ascribed
class (given at birth),
should have then high
levels of social
attachment.
SUB
CULTURAL
THEORY
COHEN
SUB-CULTURAL STRAIN THEORIES
COHEN -
STATUS
FRUSTRATION
Lower-class are
frustrated because
they want to be
successful but lack
qualifications and
skills.
They achieve
this through
non-utilarisiam
crimes. E.G.
graffiti.
Because the crimes reward
the individual with respect
there is not always the need
for a monetary value to
commit a crime, so the
subcultural perspective
explains why people commit
non-utilitarian crimes.
CRITIQUE
Not all
subcultures
commit crime
- This is
deterministic.
Ignores free will and
consciousness/awareness
He generalises
that all w/c boys
will be criminal.
Ignores
meritocratic
principles of society.
Gender specific -
causes a reaction
formation that what
about women?!
Reaction formation -> status
frustration -> faced with failure
they choose a delinquent
subculture -> youths rebound
from conventional failure (eg
school) (then it circles around
again)
Solves frustration
by rejecting society
by creating own
norms and values.
Cohen noted
that much
offending
behaviour had no
economic
motivation, it was
done for the
thrill.
According to Cohen,
lower class boys aspire
to have middle class
values and aspirations
but they lack the
means to get them,
this leads to status
frustration – a sense of
failure and personal
inadequacy.
This results in the
lower class boys
rejecting those values
and acceptable
behaviour, when they
realise they are not
going to be successful
This is subculture
strain.
They are neither
consensus nor
conflict.
They are social action
theorists who focus
on small group
behaviour.
They assume that that
those who deviate
(hold different values
to mainstream society.
It is centred
around the idea of
crime and
deviance is a
reaction by a
group who reject
the majority view
and or feel
excluded.
Robert Merton was
accused of not being
able to explain non
material crime So sub
cultural theory
developed to explain
such crime in terms of
subculture.
SUB CULTURE =
- Individuals who have
broken away from
mainstream culture.
CULTURE = - A way of life
of a society norms and
values and status and
roles within it.
CRITIQUE
Subculture theory
has been criticised
for making white
working class boys
deviant and
therefore subject to
self-fulfilling
prophecy.
WOMEN + CRIME:
WOMEN ARE OFTEN
IGNORED IN GANGS.
Cloward and
Ohlin (1960)
Like Merton, they
explain working
class crime in
terms of goals and
means.
But they disagree with
Merton that delinquents
share the same values and
goals as the rest of society.
See lower
class
delinquents
as sharing
their own
deviant
subculture
values.
So they develop an
illegitimate career
structure Because of
blocked opportunities,
they cannot get on
legitimately.
Meritocracy -> Ability
= achievement DIVDED
BY Effort
CRITIQUE
Not everyone gets
sucked into illegitimate
career structures.
Fails to consider
white collar crime.
Women have more blocked
opportunity then men.
OFFICAL STATISTICS
Official statistics on crime
are collected by the
government and published
several times a year.
These statistics are
extensive and include the
following: numbers of
arrests numbers of
convictions types of crimes
committed proportion of
crimes solved regional
variations in crime trends
in crime statistics on the
prison population and its
make-up.
REASONS FOR NOT
REPORTING CRIME
Too trivial/no loss Common
occurrence Police would not be
interested Dealt with the matter
ourselves Reported to other
authorities Inconvenient to
report Fear of reprisals
Fear/dislike of police Police
would not be able to help Too
embarrassing Victim may not be
able to report the crime.
REASONS FOR
REPORTING
CRIME
They see some benefit to
themselves They have faith in
the police to achieve a positive
result They are scared and
believe the police will help.
CRITIQUE
Easily accessible
and up-to-date.
They help governments
to evaluate and shape
their policies on law and
order.
Identify rising or falling
trends in crime by
comparing crime rates
over time.
The police filter the
information supplied to
them by the public
based on Seriousness
Social status Classifying
Discretion Promotion.
Artificial fluctuations in
crime rates crime rates
can be affected by the
willingness of the public
to report crime, changes
in the law, new crimes
and opportunities.
GENDER AND
CRIME
Females more likely to be
convicted of property offences than
males (except burglary). Males
more likely to be convicted of
violence or sexual offences• Males
more likely to be repeat offenders,
to have longer criminal careers and
commit more serious crimes (15 x
more likely to be convicted of
homicide).
Do women
commit more
crime?• Some
Sociologists and
Criminologists
argue that they
underestimate
the amount of
female as against
to male
offending. There
are two
explanations:1.
Female crimes
such as
shoplifting are
less likely to be
reported e.g.
Property crime
less likely to be
noticed or
reported than
the violent or
sexual crimes
more often
committed by
men.
Prostitution-
more females
than males-
unlikely to be
reported2.
Women less likely
to be prosecuted
and more likely
to be let of
lightly.
The ‘glass ceiling’ prevents
women rising to senior
positions where there are more
ops for white collar crimes.
CRITIQUE
Male Crime• Evidence strongly
suggests most offenders are
males• However what has
been overlooked is what is it
about being male that leads
men to offend• Focus on
Masculinity as a way of
explaining higher offending
rates
Boys have more opportunity
to commit crime ‘on the
street’ • Boys are pressurised
to be risky and reputation is
not an issue..being ‘hard’ is.
NEO-FUNCTIONALIST
ETZIONI
Etzioni: crime and
communitarianism Etzioni,
developed a theoretical
and political argument
known as
communitarianism.
For Etzioni, changes in
modern society pushed
decision-making further and
further away from local
communities and as a result
of this people have lost
interest in trying to control
their community.
They regard themselves as
powerless and this simply
reinforces their acceptance that
it is not their job to control
others, but the role of the police
and the state.
Etzioni argues that only by
taking back control and
engaging in direct action in
a variety of ways to control
local offenders and by
providing support for
those in need locally, will
social control be
reconstituted.
Etzioni is a
neo-functionalist.
Post modern society has
taken away decision making
from local communities in
favour of the government.
E.g. Reduction in
neighbourhood watch, cctv,
destruction of local
community facilities.
People explore virtual
word communities so are
stuck indoors. Control can
only be asserted when
engaging in direct action
so people in virtual
realities are powerless.
CRITIQUE
It concentrates exclusively
upon working class crimes,
ignoring the crimes of the
powerful and white-collar
crime.
It fails to explain
the causes of
crime – apart
from blaming
inadequate
socialisation. The
approach
absolves the
government and
economic system
of any blame.
The approach ignores
ideas of justice and law
enforcement and
advocates instead the
maintenance of social
order- even if it is at the
expense of justice.