Revision Booklet (Ironmonger)

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Revision Booklet – Unit 1 section A (skills)

Section

A – Geographical Skills

How

to describe the pattern of physical or human features on an atlas

map:

Typical

question: describe

the link between the population density (figure 1) and physical

geography (figure 2) of China.

Model

answer: figure

1 shows that China is densely populated on the eastern side of the

country and sparsely populated to the west. In the east, the Huang

He, Yangtze and Xi Jiang meet the sea whereas in the west, there are

a number of mountain ranges and inhospitable environments such as the

Kunlun Mountains, Gobi desert and Atai Mountains (in the north west).

Ordnance

Survey (OS) Maps

Maps

are produced at different scales.

The scale of the map is how much smaller the map is than the area it

represents in real life.

The

symbols

used on a map represent features on the ground. Many of the symbols

give a ‘clue’ to what they represent. You will always be provided

with a key. Tourist

features

are represented by blue symbols.

Grid

references;

you will need to be able to locate features using 4 and 6 figure grid

references. 4-figure grid references (e.g. 0416) locate a square

whereas 6-figure grid references (e.g. 045163) locate a particular

point (within a square) on the map.

Human

feature:

changes made to the land by humans, or features of the land added by

humans. This typically includes land use (how the land is used and

settlement patterns) and communications i.e. roads and railways.

Physical

feature:

features of the land made by nature or natural forces. This includes

the relief (i.e. the shape of the land), the presence of rivers and

their valleys and vegetation.

You

can work out the human activity from looking at the map and using the

key

provided. Communication

routes

such as roads and railways are shown. Other public

rights of way

such as footpaths and cycle networks are also shown on maps.

The

section on the OS map key called ‘Land

features’

contains a lot of information about the location of other human

activity, for example windmills and wind generators. It also

indicates who

owns the land,

for example the National Trust.

Maps

show settlements

but not the number of people who live in them, although their actual

size is shown by the area they cover. Some human activity is shown by

the services

available

in settlements such as churches, Post Offices and public houses

(pubs).

Tourist

information

has its own section in the key on OS maps. As well as the information

in the key, don’t forget that castles

(in the antiquities – ‘old things’ – part of the key) are

also tourist attractions!

Bar

charts are

the simplest form of displaying data. The data used for a bar chart

is discrete

data. This means that it is a distinct piece of information e.g. the

different types of vehicles in a traffic count.

Types of charts/graphs:

A

histogram

is used to portray continuous

data.

An example would be the traffic flow for a continuous time frame. A

pyramid

chart

is a type of histogram (used to portray population).

A compound bar chart divides the information up, often each bar is out of 100%.

A located bar chart is when a bar chart is placed on a map to give the data more relevance. this is classed as a sophisticated technique.

A

line

graph

is a basic graphical technique used to show changes over time

(continuous data). In all line graphs there are dependent

and independent

variables.

A

compound

line graph

is subdivided on the basis of the information being displayed in

lines across the graph.

Flow

line maps

and isoline

maps are more sophisticated ways of portraying data. A flow line

shows movement between places. The thickness of the line indicates

the amount of movement. The direction can be shown by an arrow.

An

isoline

joins places of equal value and shows the distribution of an item

over a particular area.

A

dispersion

graph

shows the range of a set of data. It shows if the data tends to group

(similar values) or disperse (a range of values). The values are

plotted on the vertical axis. There is also a horizontal axis to show

the frequency (the number of times) the variable occurs.

A

scatter

graph

can be used to show if there is a relationship (link or correlation)

between two sets of data. After

plotting the points, a ‘line

of best-fit’

should be drawn on the graph. This will indicate the strength of the

relationship. The

pattern will show positive

correlation

(a line of best fit slanting upwards towards the right) or negative

correlation

(a line of best slanting upwards towards the left), or if there is no

correlation

at all (impossible to tell).

A

GIS

map

has a number of layers (normally digitally represented). These layers

are built up one on top of the other to build a picture of an area.

Google

Earth

or Sat Nav is an example of GIS. Sat

Nav

is specifically an example of GPS i.e. Global Positioning Systems.

Advantages

and disadvantages of GIS

Advantages

Disadvantages

A

lot of information can be seen on one map.

The

information can become difficult to see if too much is put on to

one map.

Information

can be linked together easily to form patterns that can be

analysed.

A

computer or other ICT equipment is needed as the maps are digital.

GIS

is available on iPhones and other types of mobile phone.

The

equipment is expensive to buy and keep up-to-date.

GIS

is of great benefit to many public services e.g. the police and

utility companies (e.g. Gas and Electric).

A

certain amount of training is needed to use the more sophisticated

systems.

GPS

has made traveling between places much easier.

Some

uses of GIS:

Ambulance

stations

have used GIS to improve

their response times.

GIS

has been used to research where

accidents have happened

in the past and therefore where would be the best place to have

ambulances located at certain times of the day. This has also

improved response times of ambulances across the country.

Public

utility companies have

used GIS to improve their service to customers.

The location of public

utilities such as telephone lines and water pipes are all mapped.

Maintenance

work is also logged on to the website. Different companies are

encouraged to plan so that routine maintenance can be carried out at

the same time.

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Revision Booklet - Unit 1 section B

Section

B – Challenges for the Planet

The

causes, effects and responses to climate change

How

has the world’s climate changed since the last ice age?

The

graph shows the trend in the world’s temperature since the end

of the last ice age,

approximately 10,000

years ago. The

temperature since that time has increased by 6 degrees Celsius. Within

this general (rising) trend however, there have been a number of

fluctuations.

After the last ice age, temperature

rose rapidly

for the following 2,000 years. Between 4,000 and 8,000 years ago,

there were two warm periods interrupted by a colder spell. Another

warm

spell

happened between the years AD800 and AD1200, which was known as the

medieval

warm period.

There then followed the Little

Ice Age

where temperatures were below the long-term average for 600

years, ending in the late 1800s. In

the past 100

years, the temperature

has begun to rise steadily,

with greater increases since the 1960s.

The temperature is projected

to increase much more

rapidly

in the coming years, being 5 degrees Celsius warmer in 2100 than it

is now.

Why

has the world’s climate changed since the last Ice Age?

The

causes of long-term

climate change

can be either external i.e. from space or external

i.e. from the ocean, land and atmosphere.

External

factors which affect climate change

Solar

output

This

is energy that comes from the Sun. The energy that comes from the

Sun changes over time.

Measurements

made in the 1980s showed that the total amount of solar energy

reaching the Earth has decreased by 0.1%.

Although

this is not much, if the trend continued for 100 years, it could

influence global climate. It has been predicted that a 1% change in

solar output could make the temperature rise or fall by between 0.5

and 1.0 degree Celsius.

It

is thought that the activity of sunspots on the Sun’s surface

affects solar output. There was a period of drastically reduced

sunspot activity between 1645 and 1715 which might have been a

cause of the Little Ice Age.

Orbital

geometry

Orbital

characteristics that are responsible for past and possible future

climate changes include:

The

shape of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun varies from nearly

circular to elliptical and back to circular again every 95,000

years. Cold, glacial periods have occurred when the Earth’s

orbit is circular and warmer periods when it is more elliptical.

The

tilt of the Earth’s axis varies over time from 21.5 to 24.5

degrees. This variation occurs over a 41,000 year time span. The

greater the angle of the tilt, the hotter the summers are and the

colder the winters are. When the angle is greater the Earth

usually experiences warmer periods.

Internal

factors which affect climate change

Volcanic

activity

Volcanic

eruptions release large amounts of sulphur dioxide and ash into the

atmosphere. These act as a cloak and reduce the amount of solar

(radiation) energy reaching the Earth’s surface.

In

1815 Mount Tambora erupted. The following year was unusually cold

over much of the world, with Europe having heavy snowfalls and

frost throughout the summer. 1816 became known as ‘the year

without a summer’.

Surface

reflection

During

cooler periods when there is a larger amount of snow and ice on the

Earth, global temperature will drop due to the snow and ice

reflecting sunlight back into space. If the planet warms up, snow

and ice will diminish, and the Earth will continue to get warmer.

Change

in atmospheric gas

There

is a clear relationship between the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2)

in the atmosphere and temperature variations. Carbon dioxide is one

of the most important gases responsible for the greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse effect keeps heat within the Earth’s atmosphere by

absorbing long-wave radiation. Without the greenhouse effect, the

average global temperature of the Earth would be minus 18 degrees

Celsius, rather than the present 15.

Tectonic

activity

The

movement of continents caused by plate tectonics affects the global

pattern of atmospheric and ocean circulation; and the changing

shape of the Earth’s surface causes winds and ocean currents to

change. This process is too slow to have much effect on the climate

over the relatively short geological time span of 10,000 years.

The

greenhouse effect

Greenhouse

gases

form a blanket around the earth which traps

the heat energy

in the atmosphere. The main

greenhouse gases are

carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.

Heat

energy

from the Sun beams down onto the Earth. Some of it passes

through a blanket of gases

in our atmosphere.

Some

of the heat

energy escapes back into space.

The energy which does not escape into space is reflected

back to Earth.

Burning

fossil fuels

Fossil

fuels are fuels which are produced from coal,

oil

and natural

gas.

They are formed by natural processes over millions of years. Fossil

fuels are non-renewable

resources

because they take millions of years to form, and reserves are being

used up much faster than new ones are being made.

Fossil

fuels are of great

importance

because they can be burned, producing significant amounts of energy.

In China, 75% of energy is produced from coal.

The

use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history (i.e. before records

were begun) and petroleum was used in oil lamps in the 19th

century. Natural gas, once considered an unneeded by-product of

producing petroleum, is now considered a very valuable resource. The

wide-scale use of fossil fuels, first coal and then petroleum, to

fire steam engines enabled the Industrial

Revolution,

the UK’s period of greatest growth. The invention

of the internal combustion engines

and its use in automobiles (cars and trucks) greatly increased the

demand for gasoline and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels.

Other forms of transportation

e.g. railways and aircraft, also required fossil fuels. The other

major uses include generating electricity and producing feedstock for

the petrochemical industry. The generation

of power

accounts for 25% of global carbon dioxide emissions.

The

production and use of fossil fuels raise

environmental concerns.

When fossil fuels are burnt, gases

are released

which build up in the atmosphere. One of these gases is carbon

dioxide. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3

billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year.

It is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of

that amount. This contributes to the greenhouse effect and global

warming, causing the average surface temperature of the Earth to rise

in response.

There

is a global movement encouraging the generation of renewable energy

to meet growing demand.

Increasing

methane in our atmosphere

Methane

is a greenhouse gas. This means that it has the ability to trap heat

within the Earth’s atmosphere. It makes up 20% of the greenhouse

gases in the atmosphere and is 20 times more potent (powerful) than

carbon dioxide. Methane comes from organisms that were alive

many years ago,

recently dead rotting organisms and

those alive

today.

Fossil

methane,

which provides approximately 30% of methane released into the

atmosphere, was formed underground many years ago. It comes to the

surface when fossil fuels are mined (i.e. when we dig into the ground

to get out fossil fuels such as coal and oil).

Modern

methane

comes from a variety of sources:

Wetlands

(including swamps and marshes) releasing methane gas.

The

growing of rice (methane is released in the process).

Landfills

(for dumping rubbish) which contain rotting vegetable mater.

Burning

vegetation.

The

bowels of animals (very simply, animals doing what animals do!)

The

levels

of methane in the atmosphere have been rising

by 1.5% a year for the past decade. This is due to:

An

increase in the mining of fossil fuels.

Rising

temperature which causes an increase in bacteria emissions from

wetlands.

An

increase in rice production due to the growing population in

rice-producing countries e.g. China.

An

increase in the number of cattle and sheep for meat, in line with an

increase in Western-style diets (like ours!)

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Section B continued

The

negative effects of climate change

Climate

change has negative effects on the environment

and people.

These negative effects can be at both a local

and global

scale.

Global

scale

Changing

pattern of crop yields

Countries closest to

the equator are likely to suffer the most as their crop yields will

decrease. “Crop yields” refer to how much an area producing crops

is able to produce (in a growing season). In Africa, countries such

as Tanzania and Mozambique will have longer periods of drought (dry

and arid conditions) and shorter growing seasons. They could lose

almost a third of their maize (corn) crop. It is forecast that in

India there will be a 50% decrease in the amount of land available to

grow wheat. This is due to hotter and drier weather.

Rising

sea levels

Research

published in 2007 by The Hadley Centre for Climate Change at Exeter

showed that between 1993 and 2006, sea levels rose 3.3mm a year. This

will lead to an 88cm rise in sea levels by the end of the century.

This rise will threaten large regions of low lying coastal land e.g.

Bangladesh, as well as major world cities such as London, New York

and Tokyo. Many islands in the Pacific Ocean are already being

affected by rising sea levels. Two of the Kiribati islands are now

covered with water! This has a particularly negative effect on the

wildlife. Coral reefs and coral atolls (islands) are especially at

threat from rising sea levels. Bangladesh is at threat as it is such

a low-lying region.

Retreating

glaciers

The

vast majority of the world’s glaciers are retreating (i.e.

melting), some more quickly than others. Some think this is due to

increase in temperatures caused by climate change. Research has shown

that 90% of the glaciers in the Antarctic region are retreating. The

melting of the glaciers could also affect ocean water movement. It is

believed that melting ice in the Arctic could cause the Gulf Stream

(a northerly current of warm water) to be diverted further south.

This would lead to colder temperatures in the region of Western

Europe.

Changes

to oceanic conditions

Oceans

act as a sink for carbon dioxide, soaking up what would otherwise go

to the atmosphere. However, increased levels of carbon dioxide have

led to ocean acidification (rising levels of acidity). Furthermore,

as the temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to

absorb excess carbon dioxide. This affects oceans across the world.

Local

scale

Extreme

weather (in certain regions)

Projections

for the 21st

century suggest an increase in extreme weather events, for example:

an increase in the areas affected by drought, increased tropical

cyclone activity and increased incidences (occurrences) of extreme

high sea level (excluding tsunamis). Evidence suggests that since the

1970s, there have been substantial increases in the intensity and

duration of tropical storms and hurricanes. Models project more

intense (but less frequent) storms outside of the tropical regions

e.g. the Caribbean. There will be more storms and floods in the UK.

Changes

to precipitation (more rain in some areas, less in others)

Observations

show that there have been changes in the weather. As climate changes,

the probabilities (likelihood) of certain types of weather events are

affected. Changes have been observed in the amount, intensity,

frequency, and type of precipitation. It is likely that regions in

higher latitudes (i.e. further north of the equator) and in the

tropics will experience increasing precipitation. Meanwhile, the

sub-tropical region (e.g. North Africa) is likely to experience

decreasing precipitation. In Kenya, droughts now happen every 3 years

instead of every 10!

The

responses to climate change – from a local to a global scale

Global

scale responses

Global

agreements between nations (the Kyoto Protocol)

In

June 1992,

the United

Nations

(an international organisation of countries set up after WWII to

promote peace) held a meeting in Rio

de Janeiro

(Brazil). This has since been referred to as the Earth

Summit

because it was at this meeting that a number of decisions were made

by the most powerful countries in the world about their response to

climate change.

The

result of the meeting was the first international environmental

treaty which aimed to stabilise

greenhouse gas emissions.

This treaty led to the Kyoto

Protocol

which was signed at the Kyoto conference in December 1997 and came

into force in February 1995.

Countries

that signed and ratified (approved) the protocol agreed to cut

(reduce) greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2%, compared to 1990 levels

globally. Each country agreed to a national

limit on emissions

which ranged from 8% for the EU, 7% for the USA, 6% for Japan and 0%

for Russia. It also allowed increases of 10% for Iceland and 8% for

Australia because they were not using all of their carbon

allowance

(i.e. they had emissions under the expected limit given the size of

the country and population). The USA

signed but did not ratify the treaty; Australia has since ratified

the treaty.

In

order to achieve their targets, countries could either cut their

emissions (i.e. reduce them) or trade

(exchange) with other countries in carbon. This means that a country

could buy carbon

credits

from another country. For example, Iceland could trade 2% of its

carbon credits with the European Union to enable (allow) the EU to

meet its target of 8%. By 2008, 181 countries had signed the Kyoto

Protocol.

In

December 2007, a further Climate Change conference took place on the

island of Bali

in Indonesia where representatives of more than 180 countries were

present. The result of the meeting was the Bali

Roadmap

in which initiatives (plans and ideas) were agreed to try to reach a

secure future climate. It has been debated whether this global

meeting has achieved anything significant at all. The United States

strongly opposed many of the figures discussed for reductions, at

times backed by Japan, Canada, Australia and Russia. The agreement

was to make ‘deep cuts in global emissions’ but there was little

to bind countries to achieving this.

After

the lack of progress in achieving any sort of binding agreement,

there have been a series of further meetings. These are referred to

as COPs, Conference of the Parties:

2009

– COP 15 in Copenhagen, Denmark;

On

November 14th,

2009, the New York Times announced that “President Obama and

other world leaders have decided to put off the difficult task of

reaching a climate change agreement…agreeing instead to make it

the mission of the Copenhagen conference to reach a less specific

“politically binding” agreement that would punt the most

difficult issues into the future.” The conference did not achieve

a binding agreement for long-term action.

2010

- COP 16 in Cancun, Mexico;

The

outcomes of this meeting were a large ‘Green

Climate Fund’

(to assist poorer countries in financing emission reductions and

adaptation to a low carbon society) and a ‘Climate

Technology Centre’

and network. At the meeting it was recognised that all parties must

share a vision for long-term cooperative action and that warming of

the climate system is scientifically based (mostly due to human

actions). The meeting recognised that deep cuts in global

greenhouse gas emissions are required and that parties should take

urgent action to meet this goal. The agreement calls on rich

countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and for

developing countries to plan to reduce their emissions. Some see

the meeting as a major step forward, others criticise its vagueness

and lack of leadership.

2011

- COP 17 in Durban, South Africa;

After

two weeks of negotiations, a deal was reached only on the last day

after a 60-hour marathon negotiation session. The terms of the

future treaty are to be defined by 2015 and become effective in

2020. The agreement, referred to as the ‘Durban

platform’

is notable in that for the first time it includes countries such as

China and India, as well as the US which refused to sign. The

conference led to progress regarding the creation of a Green

Climate Fund. It has been criticised as ‘almost useless’.

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The

actions of non-governmental organisations (NGOs)

Non-governmental

organisations

(referred to as NGOs) are legal organisations which operate

independently

of the government. This means that they do not represent the views of

political parties (or government generally). Their aim is to

influence

government. They work nationally

and/or internationally,

often campaigning

or working for development goals e.g. reducing poverty, or combatting

environmental issues, such as global climate change. Examples of NGOs

include Greenpeace and Oxfam.

Greenpeace

– and many other NGOs – have chosen to focus their campaign

(fight) against climate change on the use of fossil

fuels.

They are trying to get governments, especially the UK government to

change their policies so

that energy is produced in a more sustainable way.

They are therefore very supportive of the move towards ‘greener’

energy, for example wind or solar power.

They

present a number of solutions on their website:

A

lot of energy is wasted when it is being produced in inefficient

(i.e. not working as well as they should be) power stations;

approximately two-thirds is lost in waste heat in cooling towers. If

this waste heat was captured, the amount of fuel needed to produce

energy would be reduced. One way to do this is to use combined

heat and power systems.

These produce energy for a small area and therefore less energy is

wasted. If the energy was based on renewable sources, this would

further reduce the use of fossil fuels.

Transport

produces 22% of the UK’s carbon emissions. Low carbon cars need to

be produced and public transport needs to be made more efficient.

Air traffic produces an even larger amount of our carbon emissions

than cars. If the government did not allow any more airports to be

built and raised taxes on flights to make them more expensive, this

would reduce the amount of carbon emissions.

From

2005, industry

has been required to reduce

its emissions

or buy

carbon credits

from other companies if they exceed their targets.

Local

scale responses

By

schools

‘Livesimply’

was a campaign which ran throughout the whole of 2007. It was started

by the Catholic Church to encourage students to consider how they

make choices in life (e.g. how they travel to school, what they buy

from the supermarket etc…) It provided a number of resources for

schools which made students think about their impact on the world,

and engage with issues of sustainability (i.e. could they carry on

like this with no lasting impact?)

Many

schools are now introducing energy efficient water and central

heating systems which run from renewable sources such as wind

turbines or solar panels. Schools also do simple things like put up

notices to turn off lights.

By

local councils

The

UK’s legally binding aim, under the Kyoto Protocol, is to cut

greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5% below 1990 levels (by 2008-2012).

It is also due to meet the target set by the Climate Change Act 2008

to cut emissions of greenhouse gases by 80% below 1990 levels by

2050.

The

government believes that local councils are important in the

reduction of carbon emissions as they have an influence on local home

owners – 15% of the UK’s carbon emissions are produced by homes.

Since April 2008 local councils’ success in cutting carbon

emissions has been one of their targets. To help them meet these

targets, the government has given them £4 million. The idea is that

those local councils that have already introduced ideas to cut carbon

emissions will help those that haven’t. The 6 best councils are:

Eastleigh

Borough Council

The

City of London

Barking

and Dagenham

Middlesborough

Woking

Borough Council

Worcestershire

County Council

The

above listed councils have already introduced schemes which have cut

carbon emissions. The changes can be as simple as giving away free

low-energy light bulbs or as sophisticated as Woking’s CHP

(combined heat and power) scheme.

By

local interest groups

One

example of a local interest group is ‘Manchester my planet’. This

group is running a ‘pledge campaign’ to encourage individuals to

reduce their carbon footprint and become involved in a number of

green energy projects.

The

group started in 2005 and works with the local council. There are now

more than 20,000 individuals who have pledged (promised) to work

towards a low carbon future.

One

of the initiatives is the Green Badge Parking Permit. People who own

cars which have been recognised as having low carbon emissions can

apply for a Green Badge Parking Permit which allows car owners to buy

an annual parking permit for NCP car parks within Greater Manchester

at a 25% discount. The permit is valid for 12 months.

Sustainable

development for the planet

Definitions

and interpretations of sustainable development

After

decades of abusing the Earth’s natural resources, concern began to

grow about the effects that uncontrolled (i.e. unrestricted) economic

development (industrialisation and economic growth) was having on

health and the environment. This led in 1980 to a United

Nations

meeting, and the publication of the Brundtland

Report.

It

was in this report that ‘sustainable

development’

was first defined. The report defined it as: “…development which

meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs.”

Further

defining the concept, the report focused on three areas:

The

conservation

(the protection) and enhancement

(improvement) of the environment

by the development of new

technologies.

The

achievement

of social

equality

(fairness in society) by developing countries being allowed to meet

their basic needs of employment, food, energy, water and sanitation

in a

sustainable

way.

The

economic

growth

of all

countries

in the world.

These

ideas have been taken on and further developed over the past 30

years. The values of the Brundtland Report were re-iterated (brought

up again) at a UNESCO

(United Nations Environment Society Council) meeting in Paris

in 1997.

At this meeting, a declaration (announcement) was made about the

responsibilities

of the present generation

towards future ones.

It

stated that it was the responsibility

of future generations

to bequeath (leave) to future generations an Earth which had not been

irreversibly damaged by human activity. As part of this, natural

resources should be used reasonably; life should not be harmed by

modifications (changes) to ecosystems and technological processes

should not harm life on Earth.

A

key area of sustainable development is that it should

not hinder development

but offer a better

quality of life,

both now and in the future. In the UK, four key sustainable areas

have been identified:

Climate

change and energy:

reducing GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions (in the UK and worldwide),

at the same time preparing for the climatic change that cannot be

avoided.

Natural

resources:

the limits of the natural resources that sustain life, i.e. water,

air, and soil, are understood so that they can be used most

efficiently.

Sustainable

communities:

places that people live and work in need to be looked after by

implementing ideas such as ecotowns and green energy.

Sustainable

consumption and production:

the ways that products are designed, produced, used and disposed of

should be carefully controlled.

The

food industry, Wal-Mart:

The

products which are sold in local Asda stores have travelled many

miles. The last part of their journey is from a regional distribution

centre. This is a large warehouse where products are stored until the

local stores need them. They are then sent to the local stores by

lorry. When the products arrive in the distribution centre they are

packed in polythene and shrink wrap. The distribution centre in

Didcot, Oxfordshire used to fill a skip four times a week and send it

to a landfill site (for dumping). This was costing Asda a lot of

money and was not a sustainable way of dealing with the waste. The

problem was solved by a company called Mil-tek that makes machines to

bale plastic. They installed a large machine in the warehouse in

Didcot. All of the waste plastic is now put into the baler and

crushed to 10% of its original size. The bales of plastic are

collected once a week by a firm which recycles plastic. This is

benefitting Asda as it now receives money for the plastic, instead of

having to pay to get it taken away. It is also benefitting the

environment because no plastic is being sent to landfill sites.

The

communications industry, Nokia:

Nokia

are concerned that people do not recycle their old phones. This is a

very serious situation as more than 50% of mobile phone users change

their phone every year; 44% of these old phones are left in drawers

at home and never used again! Nokia is trying to persuade people to

hand in their old phones to recycling points because 100% of the

phone can be recycled. Old mobiles can be used in the manufacture of

trumpets, park benches – even gold rings! If every mobile phone

user recycled one phone it would save 240,000 tonnes of raw

materials. Nokia are promoting this campaign in stores which sell

their phones and have a catch jingle (tune) on their website. This

website also gives information on where to find recycling points and

the address to send the phone to if there is not a centre nearby.

A

global company, General Electric:

This

is a large transnational corporation (TNC) which operates in many

different countries. The company has introduced many policies to make

it operate in a more sustainable way. One of their pledges is that by

2012 they will reduce fresh water usage by 20%. This is expected to

save 7.4 million cubic metres of water (enough to fill 3,000 Olympic

sized swimming pools). This will be achieved by assessing their water

usage and improving their water recycling. Much of the water in their

boilers and cooling towers will be recycled water.

Power

generation – coal-fired power stations

Coal-fired

power stations provide 38%

of the world’s energy

and in countries such as India

and China,

they provide more than 50%. This reliance (dependence) on coal as an

energy source and the pollution

that results from it means that coal-fired power stations need to be

as efficient as possible

in order to produce the least amount of pollution. Coal-fired power

stations emit large

amounts of carbon dioxide,

sulphur dioxide

and nitrous

oxide.

The emissions of these gases are a major contributor to both acid

rain and climate

change.

The control of these emissions has been dealt with, with varying

degrees of success.

Carbon

dioxide:

One

way of reducing carbon dioxide emissions is to make the power plant

more efficient – this means making sure it is working as close to

100% as possible. Most power stations are only 36% efficient. If

this is raised to 40% efficiency, carbon dioxide emissions fall by

25%!

The

other way to deal with carbon dioxide emissions is to capture it

from the flue gases (the gases exiting the power station via a

tube). The technology to do this consists of amine scrubbers which

use amine solutions to remove carbon dioxide from waste gases. These

can remove up to 98% of the carbon dioxide.

Sulphur dioxide:

Many

coal-fired power stations have systems which operate in the flue of

the boiler to remove sulphur dioxide emissions by about 60%. If

scrubbers are fitted into the flue, the figure rises to about 95% of

the emissions being removed. In Germany all coal-fired power

stations have scrubbers fitted but this is not the case in

low-income countries (LICs).

Nitrous

oxide:

Most

power systems have systems fitted that will remove up to 70% of

nitrogen emissions.

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The

management of transport in urban areas

Sustainable

transport involves

maintaining the standard of transport that is required for society

and the economy to function efficiently without placing too much

pressure on the environment.

In

the Sustainable

Development Strategy for

the UK, the government has stated that it will need to take

action to control the

rate of traffic growth, improve

the performance of vehicles

and make the public aware

about the environmental impacts of polluting emissions from

transport. People need to be encouraged

to reduce their dependency on cars,

but affordable alternative public transport systems must be available

to allow them to do this.

In

urban areas of the world there is a great dependency on the car as a

means of transport. In both high income countries (HICs) and LICs,

people are becoming ever more dependent

on private vehicles

for moving around the city. Car

ownership is growing

most rapidly in LICs and HICs. In Delhi (India)

the number of vehicles in the city has grown from half a million in

1970 to more than 5 million in 2008.

Governments

want people to give up using their cars and use public transport more

frequently. The problem is that car drivers will not use public

transport until it is cheaper

and more

efficient.

It

is imperative that this growing number of vehicles is managed to

control the problems of congestion

and pollution.

There are two ways

to manage traffic

in urban areas:

Respond

to the increasing demand by building

more roads. This might

help congestion but will eventually lead to even more vehicles and

an increase in pollution levels.

Reduce

traffic with a range of

sustainable schemes. A wide range of sustainable transport schemes

has been introduced around the world to alleviate the problems of

congestion and pollution.

Sustainable

transport schemes

Congestion

charging

Congestion

charging is the practice

of making motorists pay to travel into large urban areas during

periods of heaviest use. The aim is to reduce the number of vehicles

entering the city which will ease traffic congestion and hopefully

lower pollution emissions. It will hopefully lead to more sustainable

forms of transport like walking, cycling or public transport being

used.

The

first city to introduce a congestion charge was Singapore.

Motorists in Singapore have been charged to go into the central city

area since 1974.

A

number of other cities have now introduced congestion charging zones,

including Oslo,

London

and Stockholm.

London

introduced the congestion charge in 2003. By 2008 it had the

following beneficial effects:

Traffic

levels have been reduced by 21%.

65,000

fewer car journeys a day.

An

increase of 29,000 bus passengers entering the zone during the

morning peal rush period.

A

12% increase in cycle journeys within the zone.

12%

reduction in the emission of nitrous oxide and fine particulates.

Durham,

which introduced congestion charge in 2002, has seen an 85% drop in

traffic entering the paying zone, and Stockholm’s six month trial

saw a 25% decrease.

Case

study: Cambridge Park and Ride

Park

and ride schemes

allow shoppers to park their cars in large designated parking areas

on the edge of the urban area and catch a bus into the town centre.

Park

and ride operates

in 87 cities

and towns in the UK. Parking is free but there is often a charge for

the bus.

The

park and ride sites are usually

located on the main routes

coming into the urban area, so that they are easily accessible for

road users.

Cambridge

has 5 park and ride sites covering all the main routes coming into

the city centre.

There

are 4,500

spaces available

at Cambridge’s 5 park and ride sites. Double decker buses carry up

to 70 passengers and leave the parks every 10 minutes during the day

from Monday to Sunday. It cost £2.20.

The

Madingley

and Trumpington

Road

park and ride sites in Cambridge are next to the M11. The Milton and

Newmarket Road sites are close to the A14, giving easy access for

motorists driving into Cambridge from the area.

The

park and ride sites in Cambridge are well

lit

and have security

systems

operating during opening hour. There are waiting rooms, toilets and

baby changing facilities.

There

are environmental

reasons

for park and ride schemes. Approximately 40 people will travel on

the bus, rather than 40 in individual vehicles – which means much

less congestion and pollution!

Other

sustainable transport schemes

There

is a range of other sustainable transport schemes which can be used,

including:

Car

sharing

– workers share lifts to work using their own cars.

Designated

cycle and walking paths

within the urban area. Milton Keynes is one of the best served urban

areas in the UK with 273km of cycle paths.

Road

lanes

that only allow cars with at least two passengers to use them.

Pedestrianised

areas

which restrict private vehicle access but allow buses and trams to

operate.

Road

lanes

which give priority

to buses,

ensuring they get an easy passage through congested areas.

Restricting

car parking in central urban areas

so motorists are forced to use public transport.

The

effects of resource extraction from tropical rainforests and their

management

Resource

extraction

means removal of resources. Rainforest resources include coal, oil,

iron ore, natural gas – as well as more obvious resources such as

land and wood! Tropical

rainforests are being destroyed

at a rate of about 32,000 hectares per day. Much of the area which

now remains has been impacted on by human activities and does not

contain its original biodiversity

(range of living species).

Mining

in Brazil

A

variety of minerals are extracted from the Amazon Rainforest in

Brazil.

The

Carajas iron ore mining project uses wood from the forest to power

its pig iron plants, resulting in annual deforestation of 6100 sq.

km.

Mercury

is used in gold mining. The mercury is very toxic and is found in

high concentrations in fish. 90% of all fish caught in the gold

mining region surrounding the River Tapajos is contaminated with

mercury. If eaten is causes cancer and high miscarriage rates among

the local tribespeople.

In

the state of Roraima, there have been conflicts between fold

prospectors (those searching) and the indigenous Yanomamo Indians.

Logging

in Cameroon

Large

areas of the Cameroon have been cut down for commercial wood

production.

Roads

built by the logging companies have opened up the forest for illegal

loggers and commercial hunting. This has led to the slaughtering of

mammals such as elephant, gorilla and chimpanzees whose meat is sold

at high prices to restaurants.

The

Baka pigmies are often employed for a few days to show logging

companies the best trees. This leads to them causing the destruction

of their own environment (without realising)!

If

the local Baka work in the sawmills they are not given protective

clothing. The wood is often treated with toxic products to protect

against parasites and fungus; the workers can breathe this into

their lungs.

Oil

extraction in Ecuador

Oil

is extracted from the Oriente region of Ecuador.

Toxic

waste water mixed with crude oil seeps out of 600 unlined puts into

the subsoil (the layer underneath), polluting surrounding freshwater

and farmland.

Hydrocarbons

are concentrated 200-300 times more in the water than is permissible

(allowed) in water used for human consumption. Stomach cancer is 5x

more frequent in oil exploitation areas and there are many more

miscarriages amongst indigenous people.

Many

plants such as the periwinkle which can be used to cure childhood

leukaemia are now an endangered species.

Gas

project in Peru

In

the Camisea region there is a large natural gas and pipeline project.

Camisea is home to many Amazonian tribes including the Yine, Nanti

and Nahua.

Deforestation

has caused drainage patterns to be altered, habitats destroyed and

animal movements to be disturbed.

It

has also caused soil erosion and landslides resulting in the silting

up of local rivers. Due to increased silt (material) there has been

a decline in fish catches, leading to malnutrition.

The

tribal people have caught diseases they are not immune to. During

the 1980s half of the Nahua people died from influenza and whopping

cough from Shell employees.

Only

1 in 4 of the Nanti live to be teenagers.

Mining

in Indonesia

The

Freeport mining company mines gold and copper in West Papua,

Indonesia since 1960. The company mines an area of 3.6 million

hectares, stretching from the coast to the central mountain range at

Timika.

285000

tonnes of untreated mining waste is dumped into the River Aghawaghon

every day. This pollutes the river and the coastal area by the

river’s mouth at Etna Gulf and poisons the fish. Local communities

now have a shortage of water.

The

crocodiles and tortoises in the area of Teluk Etna Indonesia are

currently on the brink of extinction due to pollution.

The

locals are exploited (taken advantage of) by begin given the lowest

paid jobs.

Tropical

rainforest management

Tropical

rainforests are being managed in a number of different ways.

French

Guiana – government control

The

government of France, which controls the rainforest of the French

Guiana in South America, has refused to allow a gold mine. This was

decided after an environmental assessment had been carried out.

IAMGOLD, a Canadian mining company, wanted to mine gold in the Kaw

Mountain area. This is close to a rainforest reserve and Kaw swamp

which is a listed wetland.

This

area is home to 700 plant species, 100 different animals and 254 bird

species. The open-cast mine would have affected the biodiversity (the

range of species) of the area and pit water containing cyanide

(poison) into the Kaw swamp.

Malaysia

– government control

In

Malaysia, the government has rejected plans to build a coal-fired

power plant at Silam, on the island of Borneo. It decided that the

site was too close to the ecologically sensitive areas of Darvel Bay

and Danum Valley.

The

government decided that it did not want to pollute the area and more

environmentally friendly forms of energy would need to be found. The

country has vast reserves of coal and other minerals such as gold.

The government will not develop these resources at the expense (cost)

of the rainforest which has many endangered species e.g. the

orang-utan. Instead the government are developing ecotourism,

emphasising the natural attractions such as world-class diving and

the diverse rainforest.

Venezuela

– government control

Since

2008, the government of Venezuela has not issued any more permits to

mine gold or diamonds in the Imataca Rainforest Reserve or anywhere

else in the country.

The

country does not need to exploit the minerals for economic reasons,

due to its oil reserves, therefore it can afford to conserve its

forest area. This decision followed attacks on local people from

illegal miners. The government will now protect both the biodiversity

of the forest and the local people.

Madagascar

– conservation and development

In

2001, Givaudan, a Swiss company, sent a team to Madagascar to survey

for new fragrances. It developed 40 aromas which were then sold. The

company shared the profits though with local communities through

conservation and development initiatives designed to protect the

tropical rainforest environment.

Costa

Rica – sustainable development

Costa

Rica is developing its rainforest in a sustainable way. One of the

ways is through ecotourism. Many areas of the country have developed

tourist facilities such as zip wiring and trails through forests

which are very popular with visitors. Another way that Costa Rica is

sustainably developing its forest is through its plant species. The

Costa Rican government has allowed the American company Merck to look

for plants which can be used to make medicines or fragrances for

perfumes. The Costa Rican government will get a share of the profits

of any products that are sold.

Ecuador

– working with local communities

Oil

has been extracted from the Amazon rainforest in Ecuador since the

1960s. The companies have done very little to manage the effects of

the extraction. Recently, the local indigenous (local) people have

taken the oil companies to court because of the destruction of their

environment.

Texaco

have agreed to pay $40 million to cover its share for the clean-up

of, amongst other things, some 160 of the 600 waste pits created. But

the chief of the local Secoya tribe stated that $6 billion was needed

to do the job properly. Maxus Energy, the company that extracts oil

from Yasuni National Park, has built an underground pipeline which

has less of an environmental impact. They have provided schools for

the local tribes and invested $60 million in environmental

protection.

Bolivia

– carbon credits

Another

form of management is through carbon credits. Developing countries

can set aside some of their forest and receive credits for this.

Industrialised countries can then buy these credits off the country.

This is a way for the developing country to earn money from its

forest.

The

largest carbon credit project in the world is in Bolivia. The project

is based in the Noel Kempff National Park which is an area of 1.5

million hectares and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since

2000. Bolivia received £25 million by selling the carbon credits of

this area. The money has gone straight to the communities who live in

the areas as compensation. This means they are no longer dependent

upon logging and destroying the forest to farm to earn a living. The

project is run by NGOs including the Friends of Nature Foundation and

the Nature Conservancy.