Test
Nervous System
Este test tiene tipos de pregunta que se abren en el reproductor de siempre.
Preguntas del test (67)
1The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the [blank_start]brain[blank_end] and [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end].
- Abrain
- Bspinal cord
2The peripheral nervous system ([blank_start]PNS[blank_end]) is made up of [blank_start]peripheral nerves[blank_end].
- APNS
- Bperipheral nerves
3Neurons are cells specialised for [blank_start]transmitting[blank_end] information. There [blank_start]is/are many different type(s)[blank_end] for all the different type of information.
- Atransmitting
- Breceiving
- Cinterpreting
- Dtranslating
- Eis only one type
- Fare many different types
- Gare two different types
4Glial cells [blank_start]support neurons[blank_end]. There are [blank_start]5[blank_end] different types. Each type has a specific function.
- Asupport neurons
- B5
5Astrocytes [blank_start]supply nutrients to neurons[blank_end], [blank_start]ensheath blood capillaries[blank_end] and [blank_start]transmit information[blank_end]. Microglia [blank_start]are the immune cells of the CNS[blank_end]. They [blank_start]engulf microorganisms and debris[blank_end]. Ependymal cells [blank_start]line fluid-filled spaces[blank_end] of brain and spinal cord and [blank_start]have cilia to circulate CSF[blank_end]. Oligodendrocytes [blank_start]support nerve fibres[blank_end] and [blank_start]ensheath them with myelin[blank_end]. Schwann cells [blank_start]are in the PNS[blank_end], [blank_start]support peripheral nerve fibres[blank_end] and ensheath them with myelin.
- Asupply nutrients to neurons
- Btransmit information
- Censheath blood capillaries
- Dare the immune cells of the CNS
- Eengulf microorganisms and debris
- Fhave cilia to circulate CSF
- Gline fluid-filled spaces
- Hsupport nerve fibres
- Iensheath them with myelin
- Jare in the PNS
- Ksupport peripheral nerve fibres
6Myelinated axons have a [blank_start]myelin sheath[blank_end] made of [blank_start]lipid[blank_end] wrapped around the axon. Gaps in between the myeline are called [blank_start]Nodes of Ranvier[blank_end] and these [blank_start]increase conduction by allowing[blank_end] action potentials [blank_start]to jump between them[blank_end].
- Amyelin sheath
- Bmyelin striation
- Cmyelin nodes
- Dmyelincytes
- Elipid
- Fprotein
- Gcomplex sugars
- Hnitrogenous bases
- INodes of Ranvier
- JMyelin Nodes
- KConduction Stations
- LAxon Hillocks
- Mincrease conduction by allowing
- Ndecrease conduction by stopping
- Oincrease conduction by stopping
- Pdecrease conduction by allowing
- Qto jump between them
- Rslowing down over time
- Sas they transmit down the axon
- Tto flow out of the axon
7Label the components of the pre and post-synaptic neurons.
- Apre-synaptic neuron
- Bsynaptic vesicles
- Cpost-synaptic neuron
- Dsynaptic cleft
- Eelectrical signal
- Fchemical signal
- Gaxon
- Hneurotransmitter receptors
- Ineurotransmitter
- Jaction potential
- Kaxon terminal
- Ldendrite
8[blank_start]Afferent[blank_end] information goes from the periphery to the brain through the dorsal root of the spinal cord. [blank_start]Efferent[blank_end] information goes from the brain to the periphery through the ventral root of the spinal cord. [blank_start]Autonomic[blank_end]: unaware and involuntary. [blank_start]Somatic[blank_end]: aware and voluntary. The [blank_start]autonomic efferent[blank_end] has two divisions: sympathetic - [blank_start]fight/flight[blank_end] and parasympathetic - [blank_start]rest/digest[blank_end].
- AAfferent
- BEfferent
- CAutonomic
- DSomatic
- EEfferent
- FAfferent
- GAutonomic
- HSomatic
- IAutonomic
- JSomatic
- KAfferent
- LEfferent
- MSomatic
- NAutonomic
- OAfferent
- PEfferent
- Qautonomic efferent
- Rautonomic afferent
- Ssomatic efferent
- Tsomatic afferent
- Ufight/flight
- Vrest/digest
- Wstop/drop
- Xweep/sleep
- Yrest/digest
- Zfight/flight
- AAweep/sleep
- ABstop/drop
9In the central nervous system, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]a nucleus[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]an axon[blank_end]. In the cerebral cortex, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]grey matter[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]white matter[blank_end]. In the peripheral nervous system, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]a ganglion[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]a nerve[blank_end].
- Aa nucleus
- Ba tract
- Cgrey matter
- Dwhite matter
- Ea ganglion
- Fa nerve
10In the somatic motor division, there is one neuron between the CNS and effector. The cell body is in the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end], the axon is in the [blank_start]spinal nerves[blank_end], it synapses at a [blank_start]neuromuscular[blank_end] junction and the effector is a [blank_start]skeletal muscle fibre[blank_end].
- Aspinal cord
- Bsympathetic chain ganglia
- Cmotor unit
- Dsomatic ganglion
- Espinal nerves
- Fcentral nervous system
- Gafferent division
- Hmusculoneurons
- Ineuromuscular
- Jmuscular ganglion
- Kmotor unit
- Lpost-synaptic neuron
- Mskeletal muscle fibre
- Ncardiac muscle fibre
- Osmooth muscle fibre
- Ptendon
- Qcalcium channel
11The sympathetic system is responsible for preparing the body for [blank_start]acute, stressful[blank_end] situations. Effects include: [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] heart-rate, [blank_start]reducing[blank_end] blood flow to skin and viscera, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] blood flow to muscles, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] gastric motility, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] salivation, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] pupil size, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] sweating. There are two neurons. The first neuron is [blank_start]short[blank_end], [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end]. The sympathetic ganglion is in the sympathetic chain ganglia, close to the [blank_start]CNS[blank_end]. The second neuron is [blank_start]long[blank_end], [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]norepinephrine/noradrenaline[blank_end].
- Aacute, stressful
- Brestful
- Cnice, calming
- Dsympathetic
- Eincreasing
- Fdecreasing
- Gno change to
- Hdecreasing
- Iincreasing
- Jno change to
- Kincreasing
- Ldecreasing
- Mno change to
- Ndecreasing
- Oincreasing
- Pno change to
- Qdecreasing
- Rincreasing
- Sno change to
- Tincreasing
- Udecreasing
- Vno change to
- Wincreasing
- Xdecreasing
- Yno change to
- Zshort
- AAlong
- ABaverage sized
- ACnarrow
- ADwide
- AEmyelinated
- AFunmyelinated
- AGacetylcholine
- AHnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AICNS
- AJeffector
- AKskin surface
- ALheart
- AMlong
- ANshort
- AOaverage sized
- APwide
- AQnarrow
- ARunmyelinated
- ASmyelinated
- ATnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AUacetylcholine
12The parasympathetic system is responsible for preparing the body for [blank_start]restful[blank_end] situations. Effects include: [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] heart-rate, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] gastric motility, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] salivation, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] pupil size. There are two neurons. The first neuron is [blank_start]long[blank_end], [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end]. The parasympathetic ganglion is close to the [blank_start]effector[blank_end]. The second neuron is [blank_start]short[blank_end], [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end].
- Arestful
- Bacute, stressful
- Cfrightening
- Dangry
- Eactive
- Fdecreasing
- Gincreasing
- Hno change to
- Iincreasing
- Jdecreasing
- Kno change to
- Lincreasing
- Mdecreasing
- Nno change to
- Odecreasing
- Pincreasing
- Qno change to
- Rlong
- Sshort
- Taverage sized
- Uwide
- Vnarrow
- Wmyelinated
- Xunmyelinated
- Yacetylcholine
- Znorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AAeffector
- ABCNS
- ACspinal cord
- ADsympathetic chain
- AEshort
- AFlong
- AGaverage sized
- AHwide
- AInarrow
- AJunmyelinated
- AKmyelinated
- ALacetylcholine
- AMnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
13The spinal cord starts at the [blank_start]foramen magnum[blank_end], the opening at the base of the skull and ends at the inferior border of [blank_start]1st lumbar vertebra[blank_end] . The spinal cord is contained within [blank_start]a meningeal sack filled with fluid[blank_end] that fits inside the spinal cavity within [blank_start]the vertebrae[blank_end]. The end is called the [blank_start]conus medularis[blank_end]. From here, the [blank_start]filum terminale[blank_end], an extension of the meninges extends the end of the spinal cavity to anchor the spinal cord. Spinal nerves that exit at levels below the spinal cord make up the [blank_start]cauda equina[blank_end].
- Aforamen magnum
- Bconus medularis
- Cfilum terminale
- Dcauda equina
- EL1
- Fthe thoracic vertebrae
- Gthe lumbar vertebrae
- Hthe sacrum
- IL3
- Ja meningeal sack filled with fluid
- Kthe cauda equina
- Lthe dorsal root
- Mthe efferent tract
- Nthe vertebrae
- Othe conus medularis
- Pthe coccyx
- Qthe anterior median fissure
- Rconus medularis
- Sforamen magnum
- Tcoccyx
- Ufilum terminale
- Vfilum terminale
- Wforamen magnum
- Xcauda equina
- Ymeningeal tail
- Zcauda equina
- AAconus medularis
- ABinferior nerves
- AClumbar nerves
- ADlower motor neurons
14Spinal nerves are called [blank_start]mixed[blank_end] nerves because information flows in [blank_start]two[blank_end] directions. After they leave the spinal cord, they break into two branches: [blank_start]ventral and dorsal ramus[blank_end]. The [blank_start]ventral ramus[blank_end] communicates with the [blank_start]sympathetic chain[blank_end] via two [blank_start]sympathetic rami[blank_end].
- Amixed
- Btwo
- Cventral and dorsal ramus
- Dventral ramus
- Esympathetic chain
- Fsympathetic rami
15Individual [blank_start]axons[blank_end] may be myelinated or unmyelinated. Axons are covered with [blank_start]endoneurium[blank_end]. These nerve fibres are then bundled together to form a [blank_start]fascicle[blank_end] which is covered with [blank_start]perineurium[blank_end]. These are then bundled together with blood vessels to form a [blank_start]nerve[blank_end] (or tract) which is covered by [blank_start]epineurium[blank_end].
- Aaxons
- Bendoneurium
- Cfascicle
- Dperineurium
- Enerve
- Fepineurium
16Label the skull
- Aparietal
- Btemporal
- Coccipital
- Dfrontal
- Esphenoid
- Fcoronal suture
- Glambdoidal suture
- Hsquamous suture
- Isagittal suture
- Jzygomatic
- Kmaxillary
- Lmandible
- Mnasal
- Nethmoid
17The [blank_start]dura mater[blank_end] is the outermost layer of meninges. It is [blank_start]dense and fibrous[blank_end] and made up of two layers. The inner layer forms the [blank_start]dural reflections[blank_end] and the space between the layers forms [blank_start]venous sinuses[blank_end]. The [blank_start]arachnoid mater[blank_end] is the next layer and contains [blank_start]blood vessels[blank_end]. Below this layer is the [blank_start]subarachnoid space[blank_end] which is filled with [blank_start]CSF[blank_end]. [blank_start]Arachnoid granulations[blank_end] perforate the dura to transport [blank_start]old CSF[blank_end]. The innermost layer is [blank_start]pia mater[blank_end] which is [blank_start]transparent and delicate[blank_end]. Blood vessels sit on top. It [blank_start]adheres[blank_end] to brain and follows gyri and sulci in the brain. The meninges also extend down the spinal cord.
- Adura mater
- Bdense and fibrous
- Cdural reflections
- Dvenous sinuses
- Earachnoid mater
- Fblood vessels
- Gsubarachnoid space
- HCSF
- IArachnoid granulations
- Jold CSF
- Kpia mater
- Ltransparent and delicate
- Madheres
18The ventricular system is a network of interconnected spaces within the brain. It is filled with [blank_start]CSF[blank_end], which nourishes and protects the brain. It is produced by the [blank_start]choroid plexus[blank_end], which lines the [blank_start]ventricles[blank_end]. It then circulates through ventricles and subarachnoid space of the [blank_start]brain and spinal cord[blank_end].
Route: [blank_start]Lateral ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]3rd ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]cerebral aqueduct[blank_end]
→ [blank_start]4th ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]subarachnoid space[blank_end]. Finally it enters venous blood circulation within the [blank_start]venous sinuses[blank_end] via [blank_start]arachnoid villi/granulations[blank_end].- ACSF
- Bchoroid plexus
- Clateral ventricle
- D3rd ventricle
- Ecerebral aqueduct
- F4th ventricle
- Gsubarachnoid space
- Hvenous sinuses
- Iarachnoid villi/granulations
- Jventricles
- Kbrain and spinal cord
19[blank_start]Hydrocephalus[blank_end] is caused by abnormal accumulation of [blank_start]CSF[blank_end] in the ventricles of the brain. It leads to [blank_start]increased[blank_end] intracranial pressure inside the skull and progressive [blank_start]enlargement[blank_end] of the head. Other symptoms include: [blank_start]convulsion[blank_end], [blank_start]tunnel vision[blank_end] and [blank_start]mental disability[blank_end].
- AHydrocephalus
- BEncephalus
- CHypocephalus
- DHypercephalus
- ECSF
- Fblood
- Gwater
- Hair bubbles
- Iincreased
- Jdecreased
- Kenlargement
- Lclefting
- Mblistering
- Nmovement
- Oconvulsion
- Pbulging eyes
- Qrash
- Rbrain freeze
- Stunnel vision
- Tdouble vision
- Ublindness
- Vcolour blindness
- Wmental disability
- Xincreased IQ
- Ysocial disfunction
- Zspeech and language difficulties
20The frontal lobe is divided into the [blank_start]motor[blank_end] cortex and the [blank_start]pre-frontal[blank_end] cortex. The [blank_start]pre-central gyrus[blank_end] is the [blank_start]primary motor cortex[blank_end] and is responsible for [blank_start]execution of movement[blank_end]. The pre-motor cortex is responsible for [blank_start]planning of movement[blank_end]. The [blank_start]prefrontal cortex[blank_end] is responsible for [blank_start]decision making, consequences, emotion[blank_end]. The parietal lobe manages [blank_start]sensory information[blank_end]. The [blank_start]post-central gyrus[blank_end] is the [blank_start]primary somatosensory cortex[blank_end]. The temporal lobe manages [blank_start]hearing and memory[blank_end] and the occipital lobe is responsible for [blank_start]vision[blank_end].
- Amotor
- Bpre-frontal
- Cprimary motor cortex
- Dpre-central gyrus
- Eexecution of movement
- Fplanning of movement
- Gprefrontal cortex
- Hdecision making, consequences, emotion
- Isensory information
- Jpost-central gyrus
- Kprimary somatosensory cortex
- Lhearing and memory
- Mvision
21The [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] provides integration between the sensory and motor systems. The [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] initiates movement and sends a copy of the instructions. [blank_start]Sensory information[blank_end] comes back. The [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] compares the [blank_start]feedback[blank_end] with the copy of [blank_start]motor output[blank_end] and adjusts if necessary → coordinates [blank_start]planned movement[blank_end] guided by [blank_start]sensory feedback[blank_end].
- Acerebellum
- Bmedulla oblongata
- Csomatosensory cortex
- Dintegration cortex
- Emotor cortex
- Fmotor programmes
- Gpre-frontal cortex
- Hcerebellum
- ISensory information
- JThe motor programme
- KAutonomic motor function
- LIntegrated information
- Mcerebellum
- Nsomatosensory cortex
- Omotor sensory compartment
- Pthalamus
- Qfeedback
- Rmemory
- Stemperature
- Tsummation
- Umotor output
- Vmotor input
- Wco-ordination plan
- Xpre-motor planning
- Yplanned movement
- Zspontaneous movement
- AAautomatic movement
- ABreflex movement
- ACsensory feedback
- ADtemporal information
- AEsomatosensory integration
- AFassociation
22Label the brain
- Aassociation tracts
- Bgrey matter
- Cwhite matter
- Dprojection tracts
- Edecussation
- Fmedulla oblongata
- Gpons
- Hcommissural tracts
- Ilateral ventricle
- Jthalamus
- K3rd ventricle
- Lcaudate
- Mputamen
- Nglobus pallidus
- Osubthalamic nucleus
- Pred nucleus
- Qsubstantia nigra
- RTentorium cerebelli
- SFalx cerebri
23Label the pathways
- AAscending
- BDescending
- CPyramidal pathway
- DExtrapyramidal pathway
- ELateral spinothalmic pathway
- FMedial lemniscal pathway
- Gtouch/propioception receptors
- Hpain/temperature receptor
- Idecussation at medulla
- Jdecussation at spinal cord
- Kdorsal root ganglion
- Lsynapse at thalamus
- Msomatic sensory area
- Nmidbrain
- Olateral reticulospinal origin
- Pred nucleus
- Qprimary sensory neuron
- Rsecondary sensory neuron
- Stertiary sensory neuron
- Tdorsal root
- Umedial lemniscus
- Vantero-lateral spinal cord
- Wsomatic motor cortex
- Xupper motor neuron
- Ylower motor neuron
- Zneuromuscular junction
- AArubrospinal tract
- ABReticulospinal tract
- ACdecussation at pyramid
- ADmedial reticulospinal origin
24The Basal Ganglia:
- Aconsists of a collection of 5 nuclei
- Bis in a brain circuit that also involves other structures
- Cselects an appropriate movement for a given situation
- Dinitiates movement
- Eterminates movement
- Finhibits movement
- Gcreates movement plans
- Hreceives feedback on movement
- Iis a pair of nuclei in the brainstem
- Jis the origin of motor neurons
25The cell stores charge across its membrane. The lipid bilayer is [blank_start]an insulator to prevent[blank_end] the free flow of ions. The distribution of ions creates the electricity, a [blank_start]charge difference[blank_end] between the two sides of membrane, the called the [blank_start]membrane potential[blank_end]. In living neurons it is about [blank_start]-70 mV, slightly negative inside[blank_end]. This [blank_start]varies[blank_end] over time. Ions can flow [blank_start]if channels open[blank_end]. Channels are selective. At Resting Membrane Potential most Na+ channels are [blank_start]closed[blank_end], some K+ channels are [blank_start]open[blank_end]. [blank_start]Sodium-Potassium pumps[blank_end] help maintain this potential, shifting [blank_start]3 Na+ out and 2 K+[blank_end] in using ATP for energy.
- Aan insulator to prevent
- Ba conductor to allow
- Cion phobic to prevent
- Dhydrophillic to allow
- Echarge difference
- Fmovement of charges
- Gsummation of action potentials
- Hion gradient
- Imembrane potential
- Jmembrane threshold
- Kmembrane charge
- Lhyper polarisation
- M-70 mV, slightly negative inside
- N-70 mV, slightly negative outside
- O+30 mV, slightly positive inside
- P+30 mV, slightly positive outside
- Q-59 mV, slightly negative inside
- R-59 mV, slightly negative outside
- Svaries
- Tis constant
- Uif channels open
- Vwhen threshold is reached
- Wwhen the charge is negative
- Xbecause the membrane is permeable
- Yclosed
- Zopen
- AAopen
- ABclosed
- ACSodium-Potassium pumps
- ADIon channels
- AEThe ion concentration gradient
- AFThe Resting Membrane Potential
- AG3 Na+ out and 2 K+
- AH2 Na+ out and 3 K+ in
- AI3 Na+ in and 2 K+ out
- AJ2 Na+ in and 3 K+ out
26The resting membrane potential is [blank_start]-70mV[blank_end], this is [blank_start]polarised[blank_end]. Local potentials can be [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end] moving toward the threshold or [blank_start]inhibitory[blank_end] moving away from the threshold. The minimum threshold to trigger an action potential is [blank_start]-59mV[blank_end]. The temporary max [blank_start]depolarisation[blank_end] is when the potential is [blank_start]+30mV[blank_end]. The cell is then [blank_start]repolarised[blank_end] by opening [blank_start]K+ channels[blank_end] which can cause it to be briefly [blank_start]hyperpolarised[blank_end], which means more [blank_start]negative[blank_end] than the RMP.
- A-70mV
- B-59mV
- C+30mV
- D0mV
- Epolarised
- Fhyperpolarised
- Gdepolarised
- Hneutral
- Iexcitatory
- Jinhibitory
- Kinhibitory
- Lexcitatory
- M-59mV
- N0
- O+30mV
- P+50mV
- Q+30mV
- R+100mV
- S0mV
- T+59mV
- Udepolarisation
- Vpolarisation
- Wneutralisation
- Xrepolarised
- Ypolarised
- Zdepolarised
- AAneutralised
- ABK+ channels
- ACNa+ channels
- ADCa2+ channels
- AECl- channels
- AFhyperpolarised
- AGhypopolarised
- AHcatonised
- AInegative
- AJpositive
- AKneutral
27The [blank_start]input zone[blank_end] of a neuron is made up of [blank_start]dendrites[blank_end] and [blank_start]the cell body[blank_end]. It receives [blank_start]chemical signals[blank_end] from other neurons. Local potentials add up either spatially ([blank_start]lots of neurons[blank_end]) or temporally ([blank_start]lots of signals from a neuron[blank_end]). The [blank_start]summation zone[blank_end] is [blank_start]the axon hillock[blank_end] which [blank_start]decides whether to transmit[blank_end] information further i.e. if the local potentials reach threshold. The [blank_start]conduction zone[blank_end] is the axon, this can be quite long. It carries [blank_start]electric signals[blank_end] or action potentials. The [blank_start]output zone[blank_end] is [blank_start]the axon terminals[blank_end], normally synapsing with [blank_start]the input of another neuron[blank_end], sometimes [blank_start]a neuromuscular junction[blank_end]. It releases [blank_start]neurotransmitters[blank_end].
- Ainput zone
- Bdendrites
- Cthe cell body
- Dchemical signals
- Elots of neurons
- Flots of signals from a neuron
- Gsummation zone
- Hthe axon hillock
- Idecides whether to transmit
- Jstops transmitting
- Ktransmits
- Lconduction zone
- Melectric signals
- Noutput zone
- Othe axon terminals
- Pthe input of another neuron
- Qa neuromuscular junction
- Rneurotransmitters
- Saction potentials
28The process of synaptic transmission:
1. [blank_start]Action potential reaches axon terminal[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Pre-synaptic bouton is depolarised[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open[blank_end]
4. [blank_start]This triggers Neurotransmitter release[blank_end]
5. [blank_start]Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft[blank_end]
6. [blank_start]Neurotransmitter binds to receptor[blank_end]
7. [blank_start]Na+ channels open[blank_end]
8. [blank_start]LOCAL depolarisation post-synaptic cell[blank_end]
9. [blank_start]Repolarised - EPSP[blank_end]- AAction potential reaches axon terminal
- BPre-synaptic bouton is depolarised
- CVoltage gated Ca2+ channels open
- DThis triggers Neurotransmitter release
- ENeurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft
- FNeurotransmitter binds to receptor
- GNa+ channels open
- HLOCAL depolarisation post-synaptic cell
- IRepolarised - EPSP
29Pre synaptic cell must contain:
- Aaxon terminal or bouton
- Bvesicles
- Ccytoskeleton
- Dmitochondria
- Evoltage-gated Ca2+ channels
- Fneurotransmitter receptors
- Gdendrites
- Hthick membrane
- Istimulus gated Na+ channels
- Jsarcolemma
30[blank_start]Depolarisation[blank_end] during the action potential causes adjacent [blank_start]voltage-gated Na+[blank_end] channels to open. This spreads the action potential [blank_start]along[blank_end] the axon like a Mexican wave.
- ADepolarisation
- Bvoltage-gated Na+
- Calong
31During the absolute refractory period, the cell is [blank_start]rapidly depolarising[blank_end] and another action potential [blank_start]will not be able to[blank_end] occur, [blank_start]no matter how large the stimulus[blank_end]. During the relative refractory period, the cell is [blank_start]repolarising[blank_end]. A normal sized stimulus [blank_start]will not[blank_end] trigger an action potential but another action potential [blank_start]can[blank_end] initiate [blank_start]if there is a large enough stimulus[blank_end]. The frequency of action potentials depends upon [blank_start]how quickly another action potential[blank_end] [blank_start]can pass down the same nerve[blank_end]. Action potentials can only travel in [blank_start]one direction[blank_end].
- Arapidly depolarising
- Brapidly polarising
- Chyperpolarised
- Dneutral
- Ewill not be able to
- Fwill be able to
- Gwill always
- Hwill sometimes
- Ino matter how large the stimulus
- Jwith a large enough stimulus
- Kif there are many stimuli
- Lif the stimulus has high frequency
- Mrepolarising
- Ndepolarising
- Oneutral
- Phyperpolarised
- Qwill not
- Rwill always
- Scan
- Tif there is a large enough stimulus
- Uif there are enough stimuli
- Vif the stimulus has high frequency
- Wno matter how large the stimulus
- Xcan
- Ycannot
- Zwill sometimes
- AAwill never
- ABhow quickly another action potential
- AChow small the action potential
- ADhow large the action potential
- AEhow many action potentials
- AFcan pass down the same nerve
- AGcan summate at the axon hillock
- AHcan travel through the Nodes of Ranvier
- AIcan trigger Ca2+ channels
- AJone direction
- AKnsync
- ALbackstreet boys
- AMwestlife
32Axons are like [blank_start]electric[blank_end] wires. Two ways to improve conduction speed:
1. Insulation of the axon. S[blank_start]chwann cells[blank_end] or o[blank_start]ligodendrocytes[blank_end] wrap the axon with a [blank_start]myelin sheath[blank_end].
2. The [blank_start]action potential[blank_end] can jump between [blank_start]Nodes of Ranvier[blank_end] (gaps between Myelin). This is called [blank_start]saltatory[blank_end] conduction.- Achwann cells
- Bligodendrocytes
- Celectric
- Dmyelin sheath
- Eaction potential
- FNodes of Ranvier
- Gsaltatory
33Metamphetamine ℗:
[blank_start]Increases[blank_end] levels of [blank_start]noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin[blank_end].
Stimulates [blank_start]fight/flight[blank_end] response.
Stimulates [blank_start]reward centres[blank_end], [blank_start]highly[blank_end] addictive.
[blank_start]Highly Neurotoxic[blank_end].- AIncreases
- BDecreases
- Cnoradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin
- Dnoradrenaline, glutamate and GABA
- Eglutamate, serotonin and acetylcholine
- Fdopamine, glutamate and acetylcholine
- Gfight/flight
- Hrest/digest
- Idance/dance
- Jhigh/die
- Kreward centres
- Lneurotransmitter receptors
- Mdopamine channels
- Naction potentials
- Ohighly
- Pnot really
- Qnot at all
- Rcan be slightly
- SHighly Neurotoxic
- TTotally harmless in small doses
- UTotally harmless in large doses
- VNeurotoxic only in pregnant women
34Neurons form networks through which [blank_start]electrical signals[blank_end] travel. Each neuron connects with [blank_start]multiple cells[blank_end] and receives [blank_start]multiple inputs[blank_end]. These [blank_start]electrical signals[blank_end] may be excitatory or inhibitory, and if the total sum of incoming signals is [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end], the postsynaptic neuron will generate a new [blank_start]action potential[blank_end] at its axon hillock. Synapses may occur via direct contact between cells or [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end], as in an [blank_start]electrical synapse[blank_end], but most commonly involve release of [blank_start]neurotransmitters[blank_end] across the [blank_start]synaptic cleft[blank_end] between two cells, as in a [blank_start]chemical synapse[blank_end]. In order for an action potential to be generated, the [blank_start]postsynaptic membrane[blank_end] needs to be [blank_start]depolarised i.e. more positive than[blank_end] the RMP. An excitatory synapse is one which [blank_start]increases[blank_end] the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell i.e. makes it more [blank_start]positive[blank_end]. An inhibitory synapse makes a postsynaptic neuron [blank_start]less likely[blank_end] to generate an action potential i.e. more [blank_start]negative[blank_end].
- Aelectrical signals
- Bchemical signals
- Chormonal signals
- Dnervous signals
- Emultiple cells
- Fone cell
- Gtwo cells
- Ha neuromuscular junction
- Imultiple inputs
- Jinput from the brain
- Ka singular source of input
- Lchemical input
- Melectrical signals
- Nchemical signals
- Ohormonal signals
- Pnervous signals
- Qexcitatory
- Rinhibitory
- Sneutral i.e. 0
- Taction potential
- Uchemical signal
- Vhillock signal
- Waxon propagation
- Xgap junctions
- Ydesmosomes
- Ztight junctions
- AAsynaptic clefts
- ABelectrical synapse
- ACchemical synapse
- ADdirect synapse
- AEcontact synapse
- AFneurotransmitters
- AGaction potentials
- AHions
- AIelectric charge
- AJsynaptic cleft
- AKintercellular membrane
- ALgap junction
- AMNodes of Ranvier
- ANchemical synapse
- AOelectrical synapse
- APindirect synapse
- AQcleft synapse
- ARpostsynaptic membrane
- ASneurotransmitter receptors
- ATaxon hillock
- AUpostsynaptic electric junction
- AVdepolarised i.e. more positive than
- AWhyperpolarised i.e. more negative than
- AXexactly equal to
- AYthe same size but opposite charge as
- AZincreases
- BAdecreases
- BBexcites
- BCdoes not change
- BDpositive
- BEnegative
- BFneutral
- BGequal to the RMP
- BHless likely
- BIunable to
- BJable to
- BKmore likely
- BLnegative
- BMpositive
- BNneutral
- BOequal to the RMP
35What is the correct grouping of neurotransmitters?
- AExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid - BExcitatory: Glutamate (somatic) and Noradrenaline (autonomic).
Inhibitory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). GABA in the brain. - CExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic).
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid in PNS, Glutamate in the brain. - DExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). GABA in the brain.
Inhibitory: Glutamate - EExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic). Noradrenaline nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid
- AExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
36How is a synapse switched off?
1. Excess transmitter is released into the cleft. e.g. ACh at NMJ
2. Excess transmitter must be removed
Degradation – [blank_start]enzymic[blank_end]
Reuptake into [blank_start]the bouton[blank_end]
Reuptake into [blank_start]glia[blank_end]
Removal requires [blank_start]ATP for energy[blank_end]. This is supplied by [blank_start]Mitochondria in bouton[blank_end].- Aenzymic
- Bchemical
- Celectrical
- Dhydrolysed
- Elysosomic
- Fglia
- Gdendrites
- Hvesicles
- Ireceptors
- Jgap junctions
- Kneurotransmitter channels
- Lthe bouton
- MATP for energy
- Na concentration gradient
- Oelectrical energy
- PMitochondria in bouton
37Information from a single origin may [blank_start]diverge[blank_end] to multiple outputs.
This provides:
1. [blank_start]Opportunity to amplify signals[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Control points[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Spread of information[blank_end]
e.g. a single sensory organ may [blank_start]diverge[blank_end] to communicate with different brain regions
Information from different regions may [blank_start]converge[blank_end] on a single output.
This provides:
1. [blank_start]Redundancy in case one component fails[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Control points[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Wide range of input[blank_end]
e.g. multiple brain regions [blank_start]converge[blank_end] to communicate with a single motor neuron that excites a single muscle group- AOpportunity to amplify signals
- BRedundancy in case one component fails
- CWide range of input
- DHigh frequency output
- EControl points
- FChange stations
- GSignal changes
- HSpread of information
- IWide range of input
- JIntensity of information
- KDiversity of information
- Ldiverge
- Mconverge
- Nmultiply
- Odivide
- Psummate
- Qdiverge
- Rconverge
- Smultiply
- Tdivide
- Usummate
- Vconverge
- Wdiverge
- Xdivide
- Ymultiply
- Zsummate
- AARedundancy in case one component fails
- ABOpportunity to amplify signals
- ACHigh frequency output
- ADSpread of information
- AEControl points
- AFSignal changes
- AGChange stations
- AHWide range of input
- AISpread of information
- AJIntensity of information
- AKDiversity of information
- ALconverge
- AMdiverge
- ANmultiply
- AOdivide
- APsummate
38Label the parts of the muscle:
- Athick filament
- Bsarcomere
- Cz-disk
- Dthin filament
- Emyofibril
- FT tubule
- Gsarcoplasmic reticulum
- Hfascicle
- Iendomysium
- Jperimysium
- Kepimysium
- Lmuscle fibre
- Mmuscle
- Nfascia
- Otendon
- Pbone
39Label the spinal cord:
- ARubrospinal tract
- BCorticospinal tract
- CMedullary reticulospinal tract
- DPontoreticulospinal tract
- EAnterior median fissure
- FVentral column (white matter)
- GVentral horn (grey matter)
- HDorsal column (white matter)
- IDorsal horn (grey matter)
- JPosterior median sulcus
- KAutonomic motor neurons
- LSomatic motor neurons
- MMedial lemniscal tract
- NLateral spinothalmic tract
40Thick and thin filaments:
- AActin
- BMyosin
- Cshaft
- DMyosin head
- EThick filament
- FThin filament
- GTropomyosin
- Hactive site
- ITroponin
- JG actin molecules
411.[blank_start]Excitation[blank_end]
[blank_start]AP reaches end of motor neuron[blank_end] [blank_start]Causes Ca2+ entry into nerve terminal[blank_end] → [blank_start]Synaptic vesicles release ACh[blank_end], [blank_start]ACh diffuses into synaptic cleft[blank_end], [blank_start]Stimulates ACh receptors on muscle fibre[blank_end] → [blank_start]Depolarisation of muscle sarcolemma[blank_end] [blank_start]Initiates an action potential[blank_end] → [blank_start]AP travels over sarcolemma and T-tubules[blank_end] [blank_start]Triggers release of Ca2+ ions from SR[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ ions diffuse to the myofilaments[blank_end] [blank_start]Triggers crossbridge formation[blank_end].
2. [blank_start]Contraction[blank_end]
[blank_start]Myosin head is energised, with ATP bound[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ binds to troponin which reshapes[blank_end], [blank_start]Moves tropomyosin, exposes active sites[blank_end] → [blank_start]Myosin heads bind to active sites[blank_end], [blank_start]Forms cross bridge[blank_end] → [blank_start]Myosin pulls actin - power stroke[blank_end]
Myofibril [blank_start]shortens[blank_end], Myofilaments, actin and myosin, [blank_start]do not shorten[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Relaxation[blank_end]
[blank_start]No new AP - sarcolemma repolarises[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ ions no longer bind to Troponin[blank_end] → [blank_start]Actin and Myosin are still bound[blank_end] but [blank_start]No new crossbridges[blank_end] → [blank_start]ATP binds Myosin, uncouples crossbridge[blank_end]- AExcitation
- BAP reaches end of motor neuron
- CCauses Ca2+ entry into nerve terminal
- DSynaptic vesicles release ACh
- EACh diffuses into synaptic cleft
- FStimulates ACh receptors on muscle fibre
- GDepolarisation of muscle sarcolemma
- HInitiates an action potential
- IAP travels over sarcolemma and T-tubules
- JTriggers release of Ca2+ ions from SR
- KCa2+ ions diffuse to the myofilaments
- LTriggers crossbridge formation
- MContraction
- NMyosin head is energised, with ATP bound
- OCa2+ binds to troponin which reshapes
- PMoves tropomyosin, exposes active sites
- QMyosin heads bind to active sites
- RForms cross bridge
- SMyosin pulls actin - power stroke
- Tshortens
- Udoes not shorten
- Vdo not shorten
- Wshorten
- XRelaxation
- YNo new AP - sarcolemma repolarises
- ZCa2+ ions no longer bind to Troponin
- AAActin and Myosin are still bound
- ABNo new crossbridges
- ACATP binds Myosin, uncouples crossbridge
42Anaerobic metabolism uses [blank_start]stored ATP, CP and glucose[blank_end] [blank_start]as energy[blank_end]. This provides [blank_start]fast, short term energy[blank_end] and [blank_start]doesn’t require oxygen[blank_end]. There [blank_start]are limited stores of ATP[blank_end] in muscle and these can provide about [blank_start]2-4s[blank_end] contraction. [blank_start]CP breakdown[blank_end] can then synthesise [blank_start]ATP[blank_end] and this provides about [blank_start]20s[blank_end] contraction. The anaerobic [blank_start]glycolysis[blank_end] of glucose leads to production of [blank_start]lactic acid[blank_end].
Aerobic metabolism uses [blank_start]oxidative phosphorylation[blank_end] [blank_start]to oxidise nutrients in food[blank_end] [blank_start]to produce ATP[blank_end]. This happens in [blank_start]mitochondria[blank_end]. This process [blank_start]requires oxygen[blank_end] and is a [blank_start]slower[blank_end] method of energy production but it does provide [blank_start]a long term, steady source of energy[blank_end].
Energy is required for [blank_start]muscles to relax[blank_end] otherwise we would suffer [blank_start]rigour mortis[blank_end].- Astored ATP, CP and glucose
- Bfor energy
- Cfast, short term energy
- Ddoesn’t require oxygen
- Eare limited stores of ATP
- F2-4s
- GCP breakdown
- HATP
- I20s
- Jglycolysis
- Klactic acid
- Loxidative phosphorylation
- Mto oxidise nutrients in food
- Nto produce ATP
- Omitochondria
- Prequires oxygen
- Qslower
- Ra long term, steady source of energy
- Smuscles to relax
- Trigor mortis
- Ustored nutrients
- Vfast, sustained energy
- Wproduces oxygen
- Xdoes not produce oxygen
- Yis constant supply of ATP
- Z5s
- AA4 mins
- AB1s
- AC1 min
- ADATP breakdown
- AEglucose breakdown
- AFare limited stores of CP
- AGis constant supply of CP
- AHCP
- AIglucose
- AJhydrolysis
- AKpyruvate acid
- ALcalcium accumulation
- AMwater
- ANoxidative glycolysis
- AOstored oxygen
- APto oxidise muscles
- AQto produce CP
- ARto produce oxygen
- ASchloroplasts
- ATthe sarcolemma
- AUt tubules
- AVfaster
- AWmuscles to contract
- AXtetanus
- AYmuscles twitches
- AZpetrificus totalus
- BAlocomotor mortis
- BBdeath
43Red muscle fibres have [blank_start]high[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. These are [blank_start]slow[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type I[blank_end] fibres. They have [blank_start]slow[blank_end] interaction with actin, [blank_start]slow[blank_end] force production and [blank_start]slow[blank_end] energy consumption, sustained by [blank_start]aerobic[blank_end] metabolism.
White muscle fibres have [blank_start]low[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. These are [blank_start]fast[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type IIx[blank_end] fibres. They have [blank_start]fast[blank_end] interaction with actin, [blank_start]fast[blank_end] force production and [blank_start]fast[blank_end] energy consumption, using [blank_start]anaerobic[blank_end] metabolism.
Intermediate muscle fibres have [blank_start]intermediate[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. They are [blank_start]intermediate[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type 11a[blank_end] fibres.
Oxygen binds to [blank_start]haemoglobin[blank_end] in blood and [blank_start]myoglobin[blank_end] in muscle.
These pigments are both [blank_start]red[blank_end] due to oxygen-iron (Fe) binding.- Ahigh
- Blow
- Cintermediate
- Dslow
- Efast
- Fintermediate
- Gmyosin type I
- Hmyosin type IIx
- Imyosin type IIa
- Jmyosin type II
- Kslow
- Lfast
- Mintermediate
- Nslow
- Ofast
- Pintermediate
- Qslow
- Rfast
- Sintermediate
- Taerobic
- Uanaerobic
- Vlow
- Whigh
- Xintermediate
- Yfast
- Zslow
- AAintermediate
- ABmyosin type IIx
- ACmyosin type I
- ADmyosin type II
- AEmyosin type IIa
- AFfast
- AGslow
- AHintermediate
- AIfast
- AJslow
- AKintermediate
- ALfast
- AMslow
- ANintermediate
- AOanaerobic
- APaerobic
- AQintermediate
- ARhigh
- ASlow
- ATintermediate
- AUfast
- AVslow
- AWmyosin type IIa
- AXmyosin type IIx
- AYmyosin type I
- AZmyosin type II
- BAhaemoglobin
- BBmyoglobin
- BCoxyglobin
- BDRBC
- BEmyoglobin
- BFhaemoglobin
- BGmuscuglobin
- BHsarcoglobin
- BIred
- BJwhite
- BKblue
- BLfreedom
44Depending on their [blank_start]function[blank_end], muscles are dominated by [blank_start]one fibre type or a mix of fibre types[blank_end].
Sprinters [blank_start]Need explosive power[blank_end] for a [blank_start]Short duration[blank_end]
This requires [blank_start]Anaerobic metabolism[blank_end] and, relatively, [blank_start]less oxygen[blank_end]
Muscles develop higher proportion of [blank_start]Fast and intermediate fibres[blank_end]
Endurance athletes [blank_start]Need fatigue resistance[blank_end] for a [blank_start]Longer duration[blank_end]
This uses [blank_start]aerobic metabolism[blank_end] and requires [blank_start]more oxygen[blank_end]
Leg muscles develop higher proportion of [blank_start]Slow and Intermediate fibres[blank_end]
They may also have adaptations for [blank_start]supply of oxygen[blank_end].- Afunction
- Bform
- Cstructure
- Dlocation
- Eone fibre type or a mix of fibre types
- Fone fibre type
- Ga mix of fibre types
- HNeed explosive power
- IShort duration
- JAnaerobic metabolism
- Kless oxygen
- LFast and intermediate fibres
- MNeed fatigue resistance
- NLonger duration
- Oaerobic metabolism
- Pmore oxygen
- Qno oxygen
- RSlow and Intermediate fibres
- Ssupply of oxygen
- Tbreakdown of oxygen
45A [blank_start]twitch[blank_end] is a single electrical stimulation of a muscle. Single [blank_start]twitches[blank_end] [blank_start]can[blank_end] occur spontaneously, but usually [blank_start]do not[blank_end]. [blank_start]Treppe[blank_end] is a series of spaced twitches. Repeated stimuli cause [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] levels of tension, due to sustained higher levels of s[blank_start]arcoplasmic[blank_end] c[blank_start]alcium[blank_end], Actin-myosin interactions become [blank_start]more[blank_end] sensitive to calcium and [blank_start]heat[blank_end]. Rapidly repeated stimuli cause even [blank_start]higher[blank_end] levels of tension or [blank_start]tetanus[blank_end]. [blank_start]Incomplete tetanus[blank_end] has visible fluctuations from individual [blank_start]twitches[blank_end]. [blank_start]Complete tetanus[blank_end] appears smooth. Activated muscle fibres in a contractile state are usually in [blank_start]tetanus[blank_end].
[blank_start]Fatigue[blank_end] is a state of exhaustion (loss of strength or endurance) produced by strenuous muscle activity.
Physiological fatigue: [blank_start]ATP[blank_end] depletion, due to depletion of g[blank_start]lucose[blank_end] & O[blank_start]2[blank_end], and Build up of metabolic by-products: e.g. Pi and [blank_start]lactic acid[blank_end]
Psychological fatigue
Feedback from working muscles to brain produces [blank_start]sensation[blank_end] of fatigue, even though muscle is [blank_start]still capable[blank_end] of contracting.- Atwitch
- Btwitches
- Ccan
- Ddo not
- ETreppe
- Fincreasing
- Garcoplasmic
- Halcium
- Imore
- Jheat
- Khigher
- Ltetanus
- MIncomplete tetanus
- Ntwitches
- OComplete tetanus
- Ptetanus
- QFatigue
- RATP
- Slucose
- Txygen
- Ulactic acid
- Vsensation
- Wstill capable
46Cardiac muscle:
- AMultinucleate and striated (t-tubules)
- BMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubles)
- CActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- DActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- EAction potential spreads via gap junctions, no discrete synapses
- FInvoluntary contraction
- GVoluntary contraction
- HAction potentials do not spread via gap junctions, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- IIntercalated disks between branching adjacent cells
- JLong and cylindrical
47Skeletal muscle:
- ALong and cylindrical
- BMultinucleate and striated (t-tubules)
- CActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- DAction potential not spread from cell to cell, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- EVoluntary
- FInvoluntary
- GAction potential spread from cell to cell via gap junctions
- HActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- IMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubules)
- JSpindle-shaped
48Smooth muscle:
- AMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubules)
- BMultinucleate and unstriated (t-tubules)
- CActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- DActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- ESome allow action potentials to be spread from cell to cell (only single unit), no discrete synapses
- FAction potential not spread from cell to cell, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- Gspindle shaped
- Hintercalated disks between branching adjacent cells
- Ivoluntary
- Jinvoluntary
49[blank_start]Skeletal[blank_end] muscle and [blank_start]cardiac[blank_end] muscle are [blank_start]thin[blank_end]-filament regulated. [blank_start]Calcium[blank_end] binds to [blank_start]troponin[blank_end] on [blank_start]actin[blank_end] and this allows the [blank_start]myosin heads[blank_end] to form [blank_start]cross bridges[blank_end].
[blank_start]Smooth[blank_end] muscle is [blank_start]thick[blank_end] filament regulated. [blank_start]Calcium[blank_end] binds to [blank_start]Calmodulin[blank_end] → this complex activates [blank_start]MLCK[blank_end] which in turn activates [blank_start]MLC[blank_end] which allows the [blank_start]myosin heads[blank_end] to form [blank_start]crossbridges[blank_end].- ASkeletal
- Bcardiac
- Cthin
- DCalcium
- Etroponin
- Factin
- Gmyosin heads
- Hcross bridges
- ISmooth
- Jthick
- KCalcium
- LCalmodulin
- MMLCK
- NMLC
- Omyosin heads
- Pcross bridges
50[blank_start]Smooth Muscle[blank_end] controls the movement of fluids
[blank_start]Skeletal Muscle[blank_end] moves, maintains posture, generates heat
[blank_start]Cardiac Muscle[blank_end] is important for pumping of blood
Cardiac Muscle has [blank_start]intercalated disks[blank_end] between adjacent cells. [blank_start]Desmosomes[blank_end] provide mechanical connection between cells and [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end] provide electrical connection, [blank_start]allowing action potential to[blank_end] spread from cell to cell. This allows the heart to co-ordinate and contract [blank_start]all at once[blank_end], it does this [blank_start]continuously[blank_end].
Smooth Muscle can have [blank_start]large length changes[blank_end] and [blank_start]sustained tension[blank_end]. It has two types:
1. Single unit: [blank_start]one autonomic neuron varicosity[blank_end] releases neurotransmitter, [blank_start]at active sites,[blank_end] [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end] [blank_start]allow conduction of AP[blank_end] [blank_start]to spread excitation between cells[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]digestive, urinary, reproductive tracts[blank_end],
2. Multi unit: [blank_start]multiple autonomic neuron varicosities[blank_end] releases neurotransmitter, [blank_start]one at each cell[blank_end], [blank_start]no gap junctions[blank_end], [blank_start]allows fine control[blank_end] [blank_start]of individual cells[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]eye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels[blank_end]
Skeletal Muscle is organised into [blank_start]motor units[blank_end]. The [blank_start]motor unit[blank_end] is [blank_start]one motor neuron[blank_end] [blank_start]and all the muscle fibres it innervates[blank_end]:
1. Small motor units ([blank_start]one motor neuron to a few muscle fibres[blank_end]) are responsible for [blank_start]fine motor control[blank_end].
2. Large motor units ([blank_start]one motor neuron to many muscle fibres[blank_end]) are responsible for [blank_start]heavy lifting[blank_end].
At a [blank_start]neuromuscular junction[blank_end], a neuron secretes [blank_start]ACh[blank_end] which [blank_start]depolarises[blank_end] the muscle fibre. There [blank_start]is no summation, just one motor neuron[blank_end]. When the neuron [blank_start]says go, the muscle goes[blank_end].- ASmooth Muscle
- BCardiac Muscle
- CSkeletal Muscle
- DSkeletal Muscle
- ECardiac Muscle
- FSmooth Muscle
- Gintercalated disks
- Hgap junctions
- Isynaptic clefts
- Jmotor units
- KDesmosomes
- LGap junctions
- MTight junctions
- NNeuromuscular junctions
- Ogap junctions
- Pdesmosomes
- Qtight junctions
- Rneuromuscular junctions
- Sallowing action potential to
- Tpreventing action potential
- Uslowing down action potential
- Vall at once
- Was individual cells
- Xeach ventricle separately
- Yfrom left to right
- Zcontinuously
- AAsporadically
- ABvoluntarily
- AConly as required
- ADsometimes
- AElarge length changes
- AFsmall length changes
- AGmotor units
- AHintercalated disks
- AIstriations
- AJcan have sustained tension
- AKcan not have sustained tension
- ALalways has sustained tension
- AMcan only have pulsing tension
- ANone autonomic neuron varicosity
- AOmultiple autonomic varicosities
- APone autonomic neuron varicosity per cell
- AQmany autonomic neuron varicosities
- ARat active sites,
- ASone at each cell,
- ATfor every cell,
- AUat multiple cells,
- AVgap junctions
- AWno gap junctions
- AXmotor units
- AYno motor units
- AZallow conduction of AP
- BAallows fine control
- BBdoes not allow control
- BCdoes not allow conduction
- BDto spread excitation between cells
- BEto prevent excitation between cells
- BFof individual cells
- BGof many cells
- BHdigestive, urinary, reproductive tracts
- BIeye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels
- BJdigestive, urinary tracts, blood vessels
- BKreproductive tract and blood vessels
- BLdigestive tract and skin (pili) muscles
- BMmultiple autonomic neuron varicosities
- BNone autonomic neuron varicosity
- BOtwo autonomic neuron varicosity per cell
- BPtwo autonomic neuron varicosities
- BQone at each cell
- BRat multiple cells
- BSfor all cells
- BTat active sites
- BUno gap junctions
- BVgap junctions
- BWmotor units
- BXno motor units
- BYallows fine control
- BZdoes not allow control
- CAallows conduction of AP
- CBdoes not allow conduction
- CCof individual cells
- CDof multiple cells
- CEto spread excitation between cells
- CFto inhibit excitation of cells
- CGeye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels
- CHfingers for dexterity
- CIfacial muscles and fingers for dexterity
- CJblood vessels and reproductive tract
- CKeye and tongue muscles
- CLmotor units
- CMsingle units and multi units
- CNbranches
- COmuscle units
- CPneuron units
- CQmotor unit
- CRsingle unit
- CSmulti unit
- CTmuscle unit
- CUneuron unit
- CVone motor neuron
- CWone muscle fibre
- CXone muscle
- CYall the motor neurons
- CZand all the muscle fibres it innervates
- DAand all the muscles it innervates
- DBand all the neurons that innervate it
- DCthat innervate one muscle fibre
- DDthat innervate one muscle
- DEone motor neuron to a few muscle fibres
- DFone motor neuron to one muscle fibre
- DGone motor neuron to one muscle
- DHa few motor neurons to one muscle fibre
- DIa few motor neurons to one muscle
- DJfine motor control
- DKmovements just involving one muscle
- DLheavy lifting
- DMsimple muscles
- DNslow movements
- DOone motor neuron to many muscle fibres
- DPone motor neuron to many muscles
- DQmany motor neurons to one muscle
- DRmany motor neurons to many muscles
- DSmany motor neurons to one muscle fibre
- DTmany motor neurons to many muscle fibres
- DUheavy lifting
- DVfine motor control
- DWcomplex muscles
- DXfast movements
- DYco-ordinated movement between muscles
- DZneuromuscular junction
- EAgap junction
- EBmuscle junction
- ECsynaptic cleft
- EDmotor unit
- EEACh
- EFNE
- EGGABA
- EHYMCA
- EIWTF
- EJdepolarises
- EKpolarises
- ELactivates
- EMenergises
- ENneutralises
- EOis no summation, just one motor neuron
- EPneeds to be summation from many neurons
- EQhas to be sufficient depolarisation
- ERhas to be sufficient polarisation
- ESare many neurons to reach threshold
- ETsays go, the muscle goes
- EUsays go, the muscle can go
- EVsays simon says, the muscle goes
- EWreaches threshold, the muscle goes
- EXCardiac Muscle
- EYSkeletal Muscle
- EZSmooth Muscle
51The [blank_start]special senses[blank_end] are the senses that have specialised organs devoted to them. These organs are the [blank_start]eyes - vision[blank_end], [blank_start]ears - hearing and balance[blank_end], [blank_start]tongue - taste[blank_end], and [blank_start]nose: - smell[blank_end].
The [blank_start]somatic senses[blank_end] are the senses that have receptors associated with the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera. These include mechanoreceptors - [blank_start]touch[blank_end], thermoreceptors - [blank_start]hot and cold[blank_end], nociceptors - [blank_start]pain[blank_end] and proprioceptors - [blank_start]body position[blank_end].
Conscious Sensations:
1. [blank_start]Sensory receptor[blank_end] - [blank_start]Sensory stimulus[blank_end] [blank_start]converted into action potentials[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Afferent neurons[blank_end] - [blank_start]AP travels up a specific pathway[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Integration centre[blank_end] - [blank_start]Is in the Cerebral cortex[blank_end]. It is where we experience [blank_start]Conscious sensation and perception[blank_end]. Each [blank_start]part of the body has a Mapped location[blank_end] in brain. The sensation [blank_start]is combined with other inputs[blank_end].
Sensory information coding:
Modality: [blank_start]type of information[blank_end], [blank_start]dictated by type of sensory receptor[blank_end]
Intensity: [blank_start]how much of something is going on[blank_end], [blank_start]action potential frequency[blank_end]
Duration: [blank_start]duration of action potential firing[blank_end], [blank_start]most sensitive to changes in sensation[blank_end]
Location: [blank_start]location of receptors mapped in brain[blank_end], [blank_start]somatatopic mapping[blank_end]- Aspecial senses
- Bsomatic senses
- C5 senses
- Dvisceral senses
- Eeyes - vision
- Fankles - pain
- Ghands - touch
- Hfeet - balance
- Iears - hearing and balance
- Jears - hearing
- Kears - balance
- Lbrain - balance
- Mtongue - taste
- Nmouth - taste
- Onose - taste
- Ptongue - talking
- Qnose - smell
- Rnose - sniffing
- Snose - knowing
- Tnose - guiding Santa's sleigh
- Usomatic senses
- Vspecial senses
- W5 senses
- Xreceptor senses
- Ytouch
- Zmovement
- AApain
- ABhot and cold
- ACbody position
- ADbalance
- AEhot and cold
- AFheat
- AGradiation
- AHcold
- AIburning
- AJpain
- AKsadness
- ALbalance
- AMbody position
- ANtouch
- AOmovement
- APbody position
- AQbalance
- ARtouch
- ASpain
- ATSensory receptor
- AUAfferent neurons
- AVEfferent neurons
- AWIntegration centre
- AXPrimary Motor Cortex
- AYAfferent neurons
- AZEfferent neurons
- BASensory receptor
- BBIntegration centre
- BCPrimary Motor Cortex
- BDIntegration centre
- BEPrimary Motor Cortex
- BFAfferent neurons
- BGEfferent neurons
- BHSensory receptor
- BISensory stimulus
- BJAction potential
- BKConscious sensation
- BLCombined input
- BMMapped location
- BNconverted into action potentials
- BOtravels up neuron
- BPtravels up specific pathway
- BQintegrates in the cerebral cortex
- BRAP travels up a specific pathway
- BSis in the cerebral cortex
- BTAP travels from brain to PNS
- BUmaps location in brain
- BVcombines with other inputs
- BWIs in the Cerebral cortex
- BXIs in the periphery
- BYIs in the sensory organ
- BZConverts stimulus into APs
- CAConscious sensation and perception
- CBAction potentials
- CCall motor input
- CDUnconscious sensation and perceptions
- CEpart of the body has a Mapped location
- CFtype of sensation has a Mapped location
- CGsensory organ goes to a specific lobe
- CHsensation has to be summated
- CIis combined with other inputs
- CJtravels down efferent neurons to the PNS
- CKtravels up afferent neurons to the brain
- CLis felt in the sensory organ
- CMtype of information
- CNhow much of something is going on
- COduration of action potential firing
- CPlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CQhow much of something is going on
- CRtype of information
- CSduration of action potential firing
- CTlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CUduration of action potential firing
- CVtype of information
- CWlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CXhow much of something is going on
- CYlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CZtype of information
- DAhow much of something is going on
- DBduration of action potential firing
- DCdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DDaction potential frequency
- DEmost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DFsomatatopic mapping
- DGaction potential frequency
- DHdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DImost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DJsomatatopic mapping
- DKmost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DLdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DMaction potential frequency
- DNsomatatopic mapping
- DOsomatatopic mapping
- DPdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DQaction potential frequency
- DRmost sensitive to changes in sensation
52Stimulus Modality:
[blank_start]Proprioceptors[blank_end] sense [blank_start]body position[blank_end].
Length receptors: [blank_start]Muscle spindles[blank_end] → [blank_start]Stretch[blank_end] reflex → Action: [blank_start]Shortening of muscle[blank_end] → Outcome: [blank_start]Posture[blank_end]
Tension receptors: [blank_start]Golgi tendon organ[blank_end] → [blank_start]Tension[blank_end] reflex → Action: [blank_start]Relaxation[blank_end] → Outcome: [blank_start]Protects from tearing[blank_end]
Superficial touch receptors sense [blank_start]light[blank_end] pressure, [blank_start]low[blank_end] frequency vibration and [blank_start]textural sensation[blank_end].
Deep touch receptors sense [blank_start]deep[blank_end] pressure, [blank_start]high[blank_end] frequency vibration and [blank_start]crude, persistent touch[blank_end].
Superficial free nerve endings ([blank_start]Nociceptors[blank_end]) sense [blank_start]pain[blank_end].- AProprioceptors
- Bbody position
- CMuscle spindles
- DStretch
- EShortening of muscle
- FPosture
- GTension
- HRelaxation
- IProtects from tearing
- JGolgi tendon organ
- Klight
- Llow
- Mtextural sensation
- Ndeep
- Ohigh
- Pcrude, persistent touch
- QNociceptors
- Rpain
- Slocation
- Tduration
- Uintensity
- Vtouch
- WMechanoreceptors
- XThermoreceptors
53Stimulus Intensity:
Below threshold: [blank_start]no response in afferent neuron[blank_end]
Increasing stimulus [blank_start]increases[blank_end] action potential [blank_start]frequency[blank_end]
Intensity can be shown by [blank_start]many neurons firing[blank_end] or [blank_start]one neuron firing many times[blank_end].
Stimulus Duration:
Sensory receptors are [blank_start]most[blank_end] sensitive to change
Often show adaptation: [blank_start]decreased[blank_end] receptor potential over time in response to continuous stimulation
Touch receptors [blank_start]are rapidly adapting[blank_end].
Stretch adaptors [blank_start]are slowly adapting[blank_end].- Ano response in afferent neuron
- Bno response in efferent neuron
- Climited response in afferent neuron
- Dlimited response in efferent neuron
- Eincreases
- Fdecreases
- Gfrequency
- Hamplitude
- Ilength
- Jsize
- Kmany neurons firing
- Llarge action potential
- Mhigh action potential
- Nfast action potential
- Ospeed
- Pone neuron firing many times
- Qone neuron sending a large impulse
- Rone neuron sending a fast impulse
- Sa high intensity neuron firing a signal
- Tmost
- Uleast
- Vnot
- Wa little
- Xdecreased
- Yincreased
- Zmaximum
- AAno change to
- ABare rapidly adapting
- ACare slowly adapting
- ADdo not adapt
- AEare slowly adapting
- AFare rapidly adapting
- AGdo not adapt
54Stimulus Location:
[blank_start]Receptive field[blank_end]: Region of space in which a stimulus can lead to activity in a particular afferent neuron
[blank_start]Small[blank_end] fields and [blank_start]dense[blank_end] innervation gives good discrimination e.g. [blank_start]fingertips and lips[blank_end]
[blank_start]Large[blank_end] fields and [blank_start]sparse[blank_end] innervation gives poor discrimination e.g. [blank_start]surface of back[blank_end]
Fields [blank_start]can overlap[blank_end]- AReceptive field
- Bsmall
- Cdense
- Dfingertips and lips
- Elarge
- Fsparse
- Gsurface of back
- Hcan overlap
- Imust not overlap
- Jmust overlap
- Kcan not overlap
- Lmany
- Mfew
- Nstrong
- Oweak
- PDiscrimination field
- QLocative field
- RSomatatopic field
55[blank_start]Somatosensory[blank_end] Cortex
Sensation: [blank_start]‘what and where’[blank_end] occurs in [blank_start]Primary[blank_end] region of cortex
Perception: [blank_start]Meaningful interpretation[blank_end] occurs in [blank_start]Association (secondary)[blank_end] region of the cortex
Somatotopic Organisation
Areas of cortex correspond to [blank_start]areas of the body[blank_end]
[blank_start]Densely innervated[blank_end] areas of body occupy large regions of cortex
Left cortex represents [blank_start]right[blank_end] body, Right cortex represents [blank_start]left[blank_end] body- ASomatosensory
- BMotor
- CPrimary
- DMeaningful interpretation
- EAssociation (secondary)
- Fareas of the body
- Gtypes of sensation
- Hintensity of sensation
- Imethod of input
- JDensely innervated
- KLarge
- LComplex
- Mright
- Nleft
- O‘what and where’
56Stimulus modality: [blank_start]pain[blank_end]
Sensed by [blank_start]free nerve endings[blank_end] ([blank_start]nociceptors[blank_end]) which are located in [blank_start]organs[blank_end] throughout the body, [blank_start]but not[blank_end] in brain. They have specialised sensitivity to [blank_start]local chemical signals[blank_end] in damaged tissue. Two types of pain:
Fast ([blank_start]acute[blank_end]) pain has a [blank_start]small[blank_end] receptive field. The axons are [blank_start]large[blank_end] and [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] → [blank_start]A[blank_end] fibres. This is [blank_start]somatic[blank_end] pain.
Slow ([blank_start]chronic[blank_end]) pain has a [blank_start]large[blank_end] receptive field. The axons are [blank_start]small[blank_end] and [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] → [blank_start]B[blank_end] fibres. This is [blank_start]visceral[blank_end] pain.- Apain
- Bfree nerve endings
- Cnociceptors
- Dorgans
- Ebut not
- Flocal chemical signals
- Gacute
- Hsmall
- Ilarge
- Jmyelinated
- KA
- Lsomatic
- Mchronic
- Nlarge
- Osmall
- Punmyelinated
- QB
- Rvisceral
57[blank_start]Basal nuclei (basal ganglia)[blank_end] modifies movement using a loop system with the cortex. It helps select [blank_start]an appropriate movement/movement program[blank_end] for a given situation and inhibits [blank_start]inappropriate movements[blank_end]. It is made up of [blank_start]a collection of nuclei below cortex[blank_end]. It has to approve [blank_start]intentions[blank_end] for them to become [blank_start]movements[blank_end]. At rest it inhibits [blank_start]the cortex[blank_end]. For movement to occur, it must inhibit [blank_start]the inhibition[blank_end].
- ABasal nuclei (basal ganglia)
- BThe cerebellum
- CThe hippocampus
- DThe primary motor cortex
- EThe secondary motor cortex
- Fan appropriate movement/movement program
- Gan appropriate movement
- Han appropriate movement program
- Ian appropriate muscle/muscle group
- Jan appropriate muscle
- Kan appropriate muscle group
- Linappropriate movements
- Minappropriate muscles
- Na collection of nuclei below cortex
- Oa pair of nuclei below cortex
- Pa nucleus below cortex
- Qa collection of nuclei around brain
- Rone nucleus on each side of the brain
- Sone nucleus in the middle of the brain
- Tintentions
- Uthoughts
- Videas
- Wmovement programs
- Xmovements
- Yactions
- Zinhibited
- AAexcited
- ABmuscles
- ACthe cortex
- ADthe inhibition
- AEexcitation
- AFmovement
58The [blank_start]Cerebellum[blank_end] (little brain) ensures a selected [blank_start]movement[blank_end] is co-ordinated, guided by [blank_start]sensory[blank_end] feedback. The [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] signals to [blank_start]lower motor neurons[blank_end] via [blank_start]thalamus[blank_end], and sends a signal to the [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] about an [blank_start]intended movement[blank_end]. [blank_start]Sensory[blank_end] signals then feedback to [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] and it matches the [blank_start]actual movement[blank_end] to the [blank_start]intended movement[blank_end]. If there is a [blank_start]discrepancy[blank_end], it sends [blank_start]corrective signals[blank_end] to [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] and [blank_start]muscle[blank_end]. It is also important for maintenance of [blank_start]posture[blank_end].
[blank_start]Procedural[blank_end] Memory is the development of [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] movements. [blank_start]Patterns[blank_end] of movement may be called [blank_start]motor programs[blank_end]. This is colloquially known as [blank_start]muscle memory[blank_end].- ACerebellum
- Bmovement
- Csensory
- Dmotor cortex
- Elower motor neurons
- Fthalamus
- Gcerebellum
- Hintended movement
- ISensory
- Jcerebellum
- Kactual movement
- Lintended movement
- Mdiscrepancy
- Ncorrective signals
- Omotor cortex
- Pmuscle
- Qposture
- RProcedural
- Sautomatic
- TPatterns
- Umotor programs
- Vmuscle memory
59Control of skeletal muscle from most controlled to least controlled:
[blank_start]Voluntary[blank_end] movements
[blank_start]Automatic[blank_end] movements
[blank_start]Reflex[blank_end] movements
All occur via [blank_start]final common pathway[blank_end].- AVoluntary
- BAutomatic
- CReflex
- Dfinal common pathway
60Reflex movements:
Reflexes have an [blank_start]organised neural circuit[blank_end], usually within [blank_start]the spinal cord[blank_end]. They have a [blank_start]predictable and reproducible[blank_end], [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] response to a particular sensory stimulus. They are [blank_start]very fast[blank_end] as there is [blank_start]no[blank_end] remote processing in [blank_start]high levels[blank_end] of nervous system. Reflex happens [blank_start]before[blank_end] the signal reaches the brain.
The [blank_start]stretch[blank_end] reflex - tendons are [blank_start]very[blank_end] sensitive to changes in [blank_start]length[blank_end], very [blank_start]simple[blank_end] reflex arc, [blank_start]monosynaptic[blank_end].
The [blank_start]withdrawal[blank_end] reflex has to [blank_start]withdraw[blank_end] from the stimulus ([blank_start]ipsilateral[blank_end]) and [blank_start]stabilise[blank_end] the other side of body ([blank_start]contralateral[blank_end]).- Aorganised neural circuit
- Bthe spinal cord
- Cpredictable and reproducible
- Dautomatic
- Every fast
- Fno
- Ghigh levels
- Hbefore
- Istretch
- Jvery
- Klength
- Lsimple
- Mmonosynaptic
- Nwithdrawal
- Owithdraw
- Pipsilateral
- Qstabilise
- Rcontralateral
- Sthe PNS
- Tthe brain
- Uthe reflex arc
- Vrandom loop
- Wlong and complex circuit
- Xpredictable, but not reproducible
- Yunpredictable and difficult to reproduce
- Zunpredictable, but reproducible
- AAvoluntary
- ABcontemplated
- ACfast
- ADslow
- AEvery slow
- AFsome
- AGminimal
- AHany level
- AIlow levels
- AJafter
- AKas soon as
- ALtension
- AMnot very
- ANslightly
- AOnot
- APtone
- AQcomplex
- ARlong
- ASshort
- ATmultisynaptic
- AUbisynaptic
- AVbounce back
- AWspring
- AXbilateral
- AYmonolateral
- AZhomolateral
- BAheterolateral
- BBmove
- BCshake
- BDalso
61Voluntary movements:
The [blank_start]pyramidal tracts[blank_end] derive their name from the [blank_start]medullary pyramids[blank_end]. The [blank_start]Corticospinal tract[blank_end] is responsible for [blank_start]precise[blank_end], [blank_start]voluntary[blank_end] movements of the body. It begins in the [blank_start]cerebral cortex[blank_end] and receives a range of inputs:
[blank_start]Primary motor cortex[blank_end]
[blank_start]Premotor cortex[blank_end]
[blank_start]Supplementary motor area[blank_end]
The fibres within the [blank_start]lateral corticospinal tract[blank_end] [blank_start]decussate at the medulla[blank_end]. They then descend into the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end], terminating in the [blank_start]ventral horn[blank_end] where the [blank_start]lower motor neurons[blank_end] go on to supply the muscles of the body. Sometimes it will synapse on an [blank_start]interneuron[blank_end].- Apyramidal tracts
- Bextrapyramidal tracts
- Cmedullary pyramids
- DCorticospinal tract
- Eprecise
- Fvoluntary
- Gcerebral cortex
- HSupplementary motor area
- IPrimary motor cortex
- JPremotor cortex
- Klateral corticospinal tract
- Ldecussate at the medulla
- Mspinal cord
- Nventral horn
- Olower motor neurons
- Pponticular pyramids
- Qthe shape of the tract
- Rthe pattern the tracts make in the body
- SReticulospinal tract
- TMedial lemniscal tract
- ULateral spinothalmic tract
- VRubrospinal tract
- Wsmall
- Xlarge
- Ygross
- Zrough
- AAsimple
- ABinvoluntary
- ACreflex
- ADspontaneous
- AEcerebellum
- AFmidbrain
- AGred nucleus
- AHSomatosensory cortex
- AISecondary motor area
- AJPrimary sensory cortex
- AKanterior corticospinal tract
- ALmedial corticospinal tract
- AMdoes not decussate
- ANdecussates in the spinal cord
- AOdecussates at origin
- APPNS
- AQventral column
- ARdorsal column
- ASdorsal horn
- ATupper motor neurons
- AUinterneurons
- AVinterneuron
62Automatic movements
The [blank_start]extrapyramidal tracts[blank_end] are [blank_start]all other descending pathways[blank_end]. They originate in the [blank_start]brainstem[blank_end], carrying motor fibres to the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end]. They are responsible for the [blank_start]involuntary[blank_end] and [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] control of all musculature, such as [blank_start]muscle tone, balance and posture[blank_end], and [blank_start]automatic movements[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]walking, chewing, smiling[blank_end]. They [blank_start]can be both excitatory and inhibitory[blank_end]. The [blank_start]reticulospinal tract[blank_end] [blank_start]does not decussate[blank_end], providing [blank_start]ipsilateral[blank_end] innervation. It [blank_start]excite extensors and inhibits flexors[blank_end]. The [blank_start]medial reticulospinal tract[blank_end] arises from the pons. It [blank_start]facilitates[blank_end] voluntary movements, and [blank_start]increases[blank_end] muscle tone. The [blank_start]lateral reticulospinal tract[blank_end] arises from the medulla. It [blank_start]inhibits[blank_end] voluntary movements, and [blank_start]reduces[blank_end] muscle tone and it is [blank_start]weakly bilateral[blank_end]. The rubrospinal tract [blank_start]does decussate[blank_end], and therefore provides [blank_start]contralateral[blank_end] innervation. It originates from the [blank_start]red nucleus[blank_end] in the midbrain and it is thought to play a role in [blank_start]the fine control of hand movements[blank_end]. It [blank_start]excites flexors and inhibits extensors[blank_end].- Aextrapyramidal tracts
- Bpyramidal tracts
- Creflex arcs
- Dall other descending pathways
- Eall other ascending pathways
- Fthe primary descending pathway
- Gthe primary ascending pathway
- Hbrainstem
- Icerebellum
- Jprimary motor cortex
- Kbasal ganglia
- Lspinal cord
- MPNS
- Nsmooth muscles
- Oinvoluntary
- Pvoluntary
- Qsympathetic
- Rparasympathetic
- Sautomatic
- Tsomatic
- Uplanned
- Vreflex
- Wmuscle tone, balance and posture
- Xfine motor control
- Ycomplex movements
- Zautomatic movements
- AAcomplex, conscious movements
- ABwalking, chewing, smiling
- ACnavigating a difficult obstacle course
- ADIrish Dancing
- AEprecise movements
- AFcan be both excitatory and inhibitory
- AGare excitatory
- AHare inhibitory
- AIreticulospinal tract
- AJdoes not decussate
- AKdecussates in the spinal cord
- ALdecussates at the medulla
- AMipsilateral
- ANhomolateral
- AOheterolateral
- APmonolateral
- AQexcites extensors and inhibits flexors
- ARinhibits extensors and inhibits flexors
- ASexcites extensors and excites flexors
- ATmedial reticulospinal tract
- AUfacilitates
- AVincreases
- AWlateral reticulospinal tract
- AXinhibits
- AYreduces
- AZweakly bilateral
- BAdecussates at the midbrain
- BBcontralateral
- BCred nucleus
- BDpons
- BEmedulla
- BFthe fine control of hand movements
- BGgross motor movements
- BHexcites flexors and inhibits extensors
63Label the parts of the brain:
- ACerebellum
- BCerebrum
- CBrainstem
- DSomatic sensory association area
- EPrimary somatic sensory area
- FPrimary motor cortex
- GPremotor cortex
- HPrefrontal cortex
- IGoal
- JMotor program/movement planning
- KMotor unit activation/movement execution
- LSensation/conscious identification
- MPerception/meaningful interpretation
64Integration between motor and sensory systems - movement control
- ACerebral cortex
- BBasal nuclei
- CThalamus
- DCerebellum
- EBrainstem
- FSpinal cord
- GInterneurons
- HAnterior horn motor neurons
- ISkeletal muscles
65A neuron that releases ACh = [blank_start]Cholinergic[blank_end]
A neuron that releases NE = [blank_start]Adrenergic[blank_end]- ACholinergic
- BAdrenergic
66Light Reflex
In light, [blank_start]parasympathetic[blank_end] fibres of oculomotor nerve via the [blank_start]ciliary[blank_end] ganglion release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end] at the [blank_start]pupillary constrictor[blank_end] and the pupil [blank_start]constricts[blank_end] to let in [blank_start]less[blank_end] light.
In darkness, [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] fibres of oculomotor nerve via the [blank_start]superior cervical[blank_end] ganglion release [blank_start]NE[blank_end] at the [blank_start]pupillary dilators[blank_end] and the pupil [blank_start]dilates[blank_end] to let in [blank_start]more[blank_end] light.
Baroreceptor Reflex
The baroreceptor reflex is a [blank_start]stretch[blank_end] reflex. The [blank_start]baroreceptors[blank_end] sense [blank_start]increased[blank_end] blood pressure and send signals via the [blank_start]glossopharyngeal[blank_end] nerve to the [blank_start]brain[blank_end] which activates the [blank_start]parasympathetic[blank_end] nervous system and sends signals via the [blank_start]vagus[blank_end] nerve to the [blank_start]heart[blank_end] to [blank_start]decrease[blank_end] the heart rate.- Aparasympathetic
- Bciliary
- CACh
- Dpupillary constrictor
- Eless
- Fconstricts
- Gsympathetic
- Hsuperior cervical
- INE
- Jpupillary dilator
- Kdilates
- Lmore
- Mstretch
- Nbaroreceptors
- Oincreased
- Pglossopharyngeal
- Qbrain
- Rparasympathetic
- Svagus
- Theart
- Udecrease
67All somatic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end].
All parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end].
Most sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end], but some release [blank_start]NE[blank_end].
Preganglionic neurons [blank_start]excite[blank_end] postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic neurons [blank_start]can excite or inhibit[blank_end] effectors.
Neurotransmitter effect depends on the type of [blank_start]post-synaptic receptor[blank_end]:
1. Ionotropic receptors have [blank_start]an ion channel[blank_end]
[blank_start]Nicotinic cholinergic[blank_end]
They are [blank_start]Depolarising[blank_end] and therefore [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end]
2. Metabotropic receptors have [blank_start]intracellular metabolic messengers[blank_end]
[blank_start]Muscarinic cholinergic[blank_end]
[blank_start]Alpha and Beta adrenergic[blank_end]
They are [blank_start]Depolarising or hyperpolarising[blank_end] and therefore [blank_start]Excitatory or inhibitory[blank_end]- AACh
- BNE
- CGABA
- DWTF
- EACh
- FNE
- GGABA
- HBRB
- IACh
- JNE
- KGABA
- LLOL
- MNE
- NACh
- OGABA
- POMG
- Qexcite
- Rinhibit
- Scan excite or inhibit
- Tcan excite or inhibit
- Uexcite
- Vinhibit
- Wpost-synaptic receptor
- Xneurotransmitter
- Yeffector cell
- Zneuron
- AAan ion channel
- ABintracellular metabolic messengers
- ACNicotinic cholinergic
- ADMuscarinic cholinergic
- AEAlpha and Beta cholinergic
- AFNicotinic adrenergic
- AGDepolarising
- AHHyperpolarising
- AIDepolarising or hyperpolarising
- AJexcitatory
- AKinhibitory
- ALexcitatory or inhibitory
- AMintracellular metabolic messengers
- ANan ion channel
- AOMuscarinic cholinergic
- APMuscarinic adrenergic
- AQNicotinic cholinergic
- ARNicotinic adrenergic
- ASMuscarinic adrenergic
- ATAlpha and Beta adrenergic
- AUAlpha and Beta cholinergic
- AVNicotinic cholinergic
- AWNicotinic adrenergic
- AXDepolarising or hyperpolarising
- AYDepolarising
- AZHyperpolarising
- BAExcitatory or inhibitory
- BBExcitatory
- BCInhibitory
Información
- Descripción
- Test sobre Nervous System, creado por Juliet S el 12/05/2018.
- Autor
- Juliet S
- Idioma
- English
- Visitas
- 1
- Valoración
- Aún sin valoraciones Valora este test