GoConqr has a new look! Let us know what you think.

Sign up free

Flashcards

LEC248

Anna Hollywood BIOLOGY DEGREE LEVEL English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1What are the 4 defining features of a chordate?Notochord; dorsal, hollow nerve cord; postanal tail; pharyngeal slits
  2. 2What are the two main examples non-vertebrate chordates?Tunicates and lancelets (small marine filter feeders - chordate features often only seen in larvae)
  3. 3What are the major features of vertebrates?Vertebral column; cranium; spinal cord; neural crest
    Other features: large 3-part brains; complex organs
  4. 4Roughly how many species of vertebrate have been described?>64,000
  5. 5What are the 7 major groups of vertebrate?Jawless fish; cartilaginous fish; bony fish; amphibians; reptiles; birds; mammals
  6. 6Approximately what percentage of all known species of vertebrate have been classed as threatened on IUCN Red List?20%
  7. 7What is the cranium?A cartilaginous or bony braincase - excludes mandible
  8. 8What does the vertebral column replace (except in some fish)?The notochord
  9. 9What are the exceptions the rule of all vertebrates having a vertebral column?Hagfish; also lampreys have rudimentary fragments of cartilage only
  10. 10Explain the structure of the vertebraeBody contains notochord in some fish; vertebral foramen (hole under neural arch) encloses spinal cord; hemal arch, if present, contain blood vessels
  11. 11In embryonic development of chordates, ..... ...... forms which is the precursor of the .......Neural tube; CNS
  12. 12What is the neural crest?Found in all vertebrates, they are the special cells along the edge of the neural tube. The neural crest cells move and specialize into diverse types. Sometimes considered 4th independent germ layer
  13. 13What allows the complexity of vertebrates?Duplication of Hox gene complex; having a developed CNS; 3-part brain
  14. 14...... ...... is responsible for more complex cognitionCerebral cortex
  15. 15When did the first chordates appear?In the Cambrian period (early Paleozoic era)
  16. 16What and when was the 'Cambrian explosion'?Major diversification where most major animal phyla appear and probably when the vertebrate lineage begins; ~540 MYA
  17. 17What are the 2 animals that could've possibly been the first vertebrates?Lancelets or tunicates
  18. 18Lancelets: lack true ...... ...... cells but have ..... cells in the same place and similar gene .......; show ............. and a divided .........Neural crest; migratory; expression; cephalisation; brain
  19. 19Tunicates: ....... hypothesis 'larvae develop .... organs, .... adult stage lost'. Another version is larval origins and ...... adults evolve laterPaedomorphosis; reproductive; sessile; sessile
  20. 20The first vertebrates: .......... generally rejected but ..... ....... shows tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebratesPaedomorphosis; genome sequencing
  21. 21What is the (widely accepted) first chordate fossil?Cathaymyrus diadexus (530 MYA)
  22. 22What early fossils are more commonly found and what was this organism like?Pikaia gracilens (520 MYA); a cephalochordate; small (<4cm) and lancelet-like; antenna-like tentacles on head; myomeres clearly visible
  23. 23How long ago was the first vertebrate fossils found?530 MYA; small (<3cm) jawless fish
  24. 24When are the oldest fossils with true bone from? What sort of organisms were they? When were they extinct by?From the Ordovician period (470 MYA); ostracoderms - jawless fish; cartilaginous endoskeleton; bony armour; extinct by end of Devonian
  25. 25The development of what allowed huge diversification of food and feeding behaviour?Jaws
  26. 26How did the jaws develop?From most anterior pair of pharyngeal arches (a.k.a. 1st gill or mandibular arch); enlargement of arches probably evolved first to allow stronger ventilation of water across the gills; teeth came later; other gill arches provide support
  27. 27When did lungs evolve?Evolved in primitive bony fish (perhaps for increased oxygen uptake)
  28. 28Some fish retain a primitive lung, others have evolved a ... ..... for buoyancy; most ..... evolved complex pair of lungs - some ..... have lost these complex lungs as can respire across their skinSwim bladder; tetrapods; amphibians
  29. 29What was the precursor to limbs?Lobed fins - lobes possess muscular tissue extending into the fin base which improves locomotion
  30. 30What is an amniotic egg?Enclosure of an embryo in protective membrane (amnion) which is a critical step for terrestrial reproduction
  31. 31What are the relative percentages of bony fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals, cartilaginous fishes and jawless fishes?Bony fishes - 47%
    Birds - 16%
    Reptiles - 15%
    Amphibians - 11%
    Mammals - 9%
    Cartilaginous fishes - 2%
    Jawless fishes - <1%
    BBRAMCJ
  32. 32Why does the answer about the number of species keep changing?Taxonomists, phylogeneticists etc. can't agree and there's new species being discovered (and lost through 'clumping'/merging species) all the time
  33. 33How many new species were discovered in the Amazon 2014-15?163
  34. 34What may be a better measure of ecosystem/biodiversity than species richness?Species' phenotypes and ecological functions
  35. 35What class is the hagfish in? How many species are there?Myxini; ~76
  36. 36When is the first/only fossil of hagfish found?From carboniferous period (330 MYA) in the Cambrian era
  37. 37Hagfish body structureNo vertebrae at any stage but have a rudimentary cranium; basic 'eyes', no paired fins; all marine, scavengers on sea floor; eel-like, sensory tentacles, 'teeth'; knotting behaviour
  38. 38What is special about hagfish skin?Can absorb nutrients through the skin and produce amounts of slime (for lubrication/knotting? defence? hunting?); skin used for leather
  39. 39What class are lampreys in? How many species are there?Cephalaspidomorphi/Hyperoartia; ~38
  40. 40When is the lamprey first fossil from?Devonian era (360 MYA)
  41. 41Lamprey body structureCartilaginous segments on top of notochord (so are officially vertebrates); cranium; eyes; no paired fins; aquatic and migratory; oral disc with rasping 'tongue' and 'teeth'
  42. 42Lamprey feedingSome don't feed as adults; many are ectoparasites; bore into flesh and secrete anticoagulants - feed on the blood; often don't kill the host; serious commercial pest; widely eaten and used as bait
  43. 43What were the first fossils found of gnathostomes and when were they found?Spiny sharks (Acanthodii) in the Silurian era (440 MYA)
  44. 44What was new about this fossil that they hadn't seen in earlier fossils?Jaws, scales, bone, paired fins - used to resist roll/pitch/yaw as activity increased
  45. 45What happened 20 MY later in the Devonian era?There was diversification and placoderms dominated - bony dermal plates with primitive 'teeth' and lived alongside ostracoderms (became extinct by the Carboniferous)
  46. 46What class are the cartilaginous fishes? How many species are in this class?Chondrichthyes; ~1100
  47. 47What are they thought to have evolved from?Acanthodians
  48. 48When are the first fossils from?From the Devonian (395 MYA) but origins likely to be from the Ordovician era
  49. 49Cartilaginous fish body structureCartilaginous skeleton (bone traces - perhaps bony skeleton lost?); placoid scales, homologous with the teeth, paired fins; males have claspers on pelvic fins for internal fertilisation; diversity in mode of reproduction
  50. 50What are the 2 main subgroups/subclasses?Elasmobranchii (sharks, skates and rays) and Holocephali (chimaeras (ratfish))
  51. 51Facts about ElasmobranchiiMultiple gill openings; upper jaw not fused to cranium; mostly marine filter feeders
  52. 52Facts about HolocephaliSingle gill openings; upper jaw attached to cranium; males have cephalic clasper; eat benthic invertebrates near seabed
  53. 53What class are the ray-finned fishes in? How many species are in this class?Actinopterygii; ~30,000
  54. 54When are the first fossils from?Silurian era (420 MYA) closely related to the acanthodians (major diversification in Devonian era) - probably evolved in freshwater
  55. 55Ray-finned fish body structureBony skeleton; paired fins; teeth; fins; cycloid and ctenoid scales; evolved swim bladders
  56. 56What were they for millions of years?The dominant form of aquatic vertebrates
  57. 57What makes them the most diverse extant group?They make up half of all vertebrate species and make up ~97% of all fish; over 40 orders; hermaphrodites and sex changes; antifreeze; male pregnancy
  58. 58What class is the lobe-finned fish in? How many species are in this class?Sarcopterygii; ~8
  59. 59When are the first fossils from for the lobe-finned fish?Silurian era (420 MYA)
  60. 60Lobe-finned fish body structureBony skeleton; paired fins; teeth; fins; retain primitive lung; elasmoid/cosmoid scales
  61. 61Within the lobe-finned fish category, how many of these are coelocanth (oldest lineage) and how many are lungfish?Coelocanth - 2 species
    Lungfish - 6 species
  62. 62Where is the order Coelocanth found? Why is it special?West Indian Ocean and Indonesian Ocean; most endangered order of animals in the world; >120 spp. known, thought it was extinct in late Cretaceous period (66 MYA) however rediscovered at a fisherman's market in 1938
  63. 63How do the Coelocanth feed? When was their genome sequenced and what did this reveal?Piscivorous bottom-dwellers, odd locomotion with multiple fins; genome sequenced in 2013 --> lungfish now thought to be the closest ancestor of tetrapods - diverged about 390 MYA
  64. 64What about the Devonian climate allowed the evolution of tetrapods?Water and oxygen levels changed as the climate fluctuated so the ability to move between pools and breathe air became critical
  65. 65What class are the amphibians in? How many species are in this class?Amphibia; ~7300
  66. 66When did the amphibians evolve and what did they evolve from?Evolved in Devonian from lobe-finned fish (<400 MYA); dominant terrestrial group until reptiles diversified in Permian
  67. 67Amphibians informationRetain aquatic stage: in most, gilled larvae --> air-breathing adults (metamorphosis); smooth, scaleless, glandular skin (for respiration); ectothermic
  68. 68What are the 3 major subgroups/subclasses?Anura (frogs and toads), urodela (salamanders) and Apoda (caecilians)
  69. 69Anura: Most ......... group Large ....., large ...... and stout bodyDiverse; hindlegs; head
  70. 70Urodela: Short ........, elongate ......., tail Some aquatic as adults (e.g. .......)Legs; body; newts
  71. 71Apoda: Limbless, small ......., ........ scales Burrowing (some are .....)Eyes; dermal; aquatic
  72. 72What did the reptiles evolve from and in what period?Amphibians in Carboniferous (300-350 MYA)
  73. 73What are the 2 broad groups of reptiles and what did these become?Synapsids ---> Mammals
    Sauropsids ---> Everything else (modern reptiles and birds)
  74. 74What 2 major groups of Sauropsids had diverged by the Permian era?Those with an anapsid skill and those with a diapsid skull (diapsid have 2 more holes in their skull)
  75. 75What class are the reptiles in? How many species are in this class?Reptilia; ~10,000 (excl. birds)
  76. 76What was the first fossil found?Casineria found 340 MYA
  77. 77Reptile body structureScaly skin (true epidermal scales); leathery, hard-shelled eggs; several species are viviparous; respiration dependent on lungs; ectothermic
  78. 78How is their sex determined?Environmental sex determination - often through temperature
  79. 79What is the only main group with anapsid skulls?Testudines: tortoises, turtles
  80. 80What are the 2 main groups in the Diapsids - Lepidosauria?Squamata: lizards, snakes etc.
    Rhynchocephalia: tuataras
  81. 81What are the 2 main groups in the Diapsids - Archoasauria?Crocodilia: crocodilians
    Aves: birds
    (so crocodiles are closer to birds (and dinosaurs, pterosaurs) than to other reptiles)
  82. 82What class are the birds in? How many species are in this class?Aves; ~10,600
  83. 83What was the first fossil from Aves and when was it found?Archaeopteryx from the late Jurassic (145 MYA) possibly; first 'true birds' however only from Cretaceous period (120 MYA)
  84. 84Birds body structureFeathers; light skeleton; toothless; endothermic; oviparous
  85. 85What class are the mammals in? How many species are there in this class?Mammalia; ~5500
  86. 86What is the first fossil found and when was it found?Depends...but 'therians' appear in the Triassic (210 MYA)
  87. 87Mammals body structureHair (keratinised and for insulation); mammary glands (modified sweat glands); neocortex, 1 lower jaw bone etc.; endothermic; ovi- and vivi- parous
  88. 88What are the 3 main groupings of mammals?Prototheria (monotremes) - 1 order
    Metatheria (marsupials) - 7 orders
    Eutheria (placentals) - 20 orders
  89. 89What body form do most fish take?Most fish are fusiform
  90. 90What changes to body form did the shift from life in oceans to life on land?Moveable head on longer neck; tail reduced in diameter (retained for balance for most groups); fins became limbs; limbs lost in some burrowing species
  91. 91What is the integument and what does it provide?The external covering including skin and derivatives e.g. scales, feathers, hair; protection (defence, thermo and osmoregulation), sensation (reception), exchange (respiration, excretion)
  92. 92What percentage of a vertebrate's body weight does the integument usually take up? What does the single organ comprise of?15-20% (more in armoured species); outer epidermis (from ectoderm) and inner dermis (from mesoderm/neural crest and unique to vertebrates)
  93. 93Most fish have scales (......) and ....... glands secrete .......; this is for ....... resistance and reduced .........Dermis; epidermal; mucus; water; friction
  94. 94What did moving to land do to the epidermis?Brought subdivision of epidermis: inner living layer (stratum germinativum) and outer dead layer (stratum corneum - cornified/keratinised)
  95. 95How does the stratum corneum differ in amphibians and terrestrial vertebrates? If so, why does it differ?It is thin in amphibians but thicker in terrestrial vertebrates to reduce water loss
  96. 96What are the benefits of epidermal scales in reptiles?Water retention, protection and movement
  97. 97Some terrestrial species have ...... (horns), often underlain by ........; some have ........ tissue at tips (....., ......., .......) and 'beaks'Scutes; bone; keratinised; nails; claws; hooves
  98. 98What part of the skeleton is the axial part?Skull, vertebrae, ribs and sternum
  99. 99Which part of the skeleton is the appendicular part?Limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle and digits
  100. 100How do the vertebrae vary between fish and tetrapods?Fish have trunk and caudal; tetrapods cervical, trunk (thoracic (ribs) and lumbar), sacral, caudal
  101. 101What are the teeth part of?The integument
  102. 102How does the musculature differ between fish and terrestrial vertebrates?Fish mostly have chevron-shaped myomeres, segmental along the axis (coordination contraction - locomotion); move to land associated with development of limbs and muscles where segmentation became obscured and muscles and limbs became intrinsic to one another
  103. 103How do the axial and appendicular muscles differ in flying vertebrates?Appendicular muscles highly developed and axial muscles reduced
  104. 104Which are the paired fins in fish and which are the unpaired fins?Paired - pectorals and pelvics
    Unpaired - dorsal and anal
  105. 105Limb = .......... + .............., segmented with ....... massGirdle + digits; muscle
  106. 106What is the loss of digits associated with?Running e.g. ostriches, horses
  107. 107What are the different types in respiration in vertebrates?Diffusion through membrane of lungs; amphibians still use skin (use of lungs varies with activity and temperature); swim bladder used in some fish (but mostly for buoyancy); ribcage increases air flow
  108. 108What are the different numbers of chambers that these categories have: fish; amphibians; most reptiles; crocodilians, birds and mammals?Fish - 2
    Amphibians - 3
    Most reptiles - 3 plus septum in ventricle
    Crocodilians, birds and mammals - 4
  109. 109What vertebrates have a cloaca and what vertebrates have an anus?Cloaca: cartilaginous and lobe-finned fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and some mammals e.g. monotremes
    Anus: bony fish, most mammals
  110. 110What are the 3 types of kidney seen in vertebrates?Pronephros develops on all vertebrates but persists as main kidney in hagfish only; opisthonephros is the later stage, main kidney in lampreys, fish and amphibians; metanephros highly developed for terrestrial life (diverse structure for different salt and water availability)
  111. 111What is the central nervous system comprised of? What is the peripheral nerve system comprised of?CNS = brain + spinal cord
    PNS = nerves + ganglia
  112. 112What is the 3rd parietal eye? What vertebrates have it?A light sensor; jawless fish, tuatara - circadian rhythms
  113. 113What do fish and some amphibians have for 'hearing'?Neuromasts detect vibration - lateral line
  114. 114What is the nerve system that some vertebrates like the monotremes have in there epidermis?Electroreception
  115. 115Where can echolocation be seen in vertebrates?Many bats (but not all); toothed cetaceans; a few birds
  116. 116How many species of dipper are there?5 species (1 genus)
  117. 117What are they the only true examples of?Aquatic passerines - totally dependent on rivers and streams; swim and dive but have no webbed feet; feed exclusively on freshwater prey
  118. 118What can they also be used to indicate?Water quality
  119. 119DIPPERS: What is the adaptive benefit of: very dense plumageBetter insulation underwater
  120. 120DIPPERS: What is the adaptive benefit of: huge preen glandFor waterproofing feathers
  121. 121DIPPERS: What is the adaptive benefit of: strong sphincter muscles in irisTo account for the changing medium (lens changes conformation between air and water)
  122. 122DIPPERS: What is the adaptive benefit of: nasal membraneCan cover nostrils when goes underwater
  123. 123DIPPERS: What is the adaptive benefit of: short wings, strong feet and claws, large muscle mass, high concentrations of blood Hb, slow heart rate in waterFor diving and swimming
  124. 124What are the general adaptations for flight? What is the dipper's specific flight adaptation?Feather & wing structure; hollow (pneumatic) bones; massive axial musculature, keeled sternum; unique respiratory system (air sacs) - meet oxygen demand, dissipate heat?; specific adaptation: short, broad wings for maneuverability & beneficial for swimming & diving
  125. 125What is the first stage in embryonic development?Zygote + cleavage (cell division, no growth) = blastula (hollow ball of cells)
  126. 126What is the second stage in embryonic development?Blastula + gastrulation (organisation of body shape and symmetry) = gastrula (embryo with 3 germ layers)
  127. 127What are these 3 germ layers?Ectoderm, mesoderm and endotherm
  128. 128What is the third stage in embryonic development?General characters appear: notochord and dorsal hollow nerve cord (neurulation), pharynx; gill slits/pouches, organogenesis begins e.g. pronephros
  129. 129What do each of the 3 germ layers become?Ectoderm: outer layer of skin, lining of the nose and mouth, and the nervous system
    Endotherm: digestive tract, respiratory tract, liver and pancreas
    Mesoderm: muscles and skeleton
  130. 130What is the fourth stage in embryonic development?Taxon-specific characters follow: organogenesis continues (e.g. opistho/metanephros); pentadactyl limb (tetrapods)
  131. 131How does postnatal development differ within fish?Minimal development in viviparous species; 'metamorphosis' in oviparous species - larvae, juvenile, adult etc.; indeterminate growth
  132. 132In what way do social clownfish display a hierarchy?1 breeding pair and subordinates (that don't help or breed); size-based dominance even in subordinates; queue for breeding positions; dominants can evict or even kill subordinates; size difference determines threat; strategic growth minimises conflict by maintaining size difference
  133. 133What level of postnatal development do amphibians show?Metamorphosis - post-hatching development; highly variable (further development as adults associated with switch from land back to water e.g. fins); indeterminate growth in some species
  134. 134What sort of postnatal development do reptiles show?Hatch as mini adults with minimal further development; indeterminate growth in most species
  135. 135What are the 2 different categories of postnatal development in birds and mammals?Altricial - poorly developed at birth; eyes and ears usually sealed; often naked or almost so; helpless - require provisioning (parental care - provisioning)
    Precocial - well developed at birth; eyes and ears open; covered in feathers/hair; are immediately mobile
  136. 136How does early life growth affect you in later life?Poor start - timing/conditions (e.g. food), sibling competition, parasites = poor later in life (lifespan/condition, attractiveness/breeding success, behaviour)
  137. 137Give an example of thisSome birds need carotenoid to produce a pigment for mating displays which comes from a good diet (so no good diet, decreased intensity of patch, reduced attractiveness); song quality in starlings has been shown to be reduced in those with a poor start in life
  138. 138What can some animals do to overcome this?Catch up/compensatory growth - can be costly
  139. 139In some highly social mammals like the .... .....-...., dominance triggers ....... i.e. in adulthoodNaked mole-rat; growth
  140. 140What grows in naked mole-rat queens?Vertebral growth
  141. 141In what way do meerkats display a social hierarchy?1 breeding pair and helping subordinates; females gain dominance by age or weight; subordinate growth adjusted to the size of the main competitor; dominance triggers growth; scale adjusted to size of the main competitor
  142. 142Why is communication so important?It is an integral part of almost all animal interactions (within and between species); insights into ecology and evolution (how physiology influences behaviour which influences conservation); insights into social behaviour and culture (cooperation and conflict; language)
  143. 143Define communication; give an example as to why it's not just the transfer of informationThe intentional transfer of a signal from the sender to a receiver with the intent of modifying its behaviour (& by which both, on average, usually benefit); bats take in information by listening to other individuals/species to find food/shelter which isn't necessarily communication
  144. 144Why do we specify that both, on average need to benefit?For example, the Angler fish uses intentional lure to get prey but this isn't necessarily communication
  145. 145Give some examples of third-party receivers and what is this known as?Competitors/conspecifics, predators and parasites; eavesdropping (exploitation: costly to the sender)
  146. 146Give an example of where eavesdropping occursCorncrake listen to other male corncrake's territory calls; the frog-eating bat picks up on the signals that tungara frogs send to each other and so can locate them more easily and eat them
  147. 147Give 2 examples of where an individual both sends and receives signals (auto-communication)Echolocation and electroreception
  148. 148What are the 7 different categories of sensory modalities that can be involved in communication?Vision (display colours); hearing (mating calls); olfaction; taste; touch; electricity; multiple (e.g. sage grouse uses both visual and auditory communication at the same time)
  149. 149Why do we have to consider the animal's perspective?Their frequency range may be out of our hearing or they may be using wavelengths of light outside our visible light spectrum
  150. 150Give an example of thisBirds and some other vertebrates have tetrachromatic (UV) vision and so although to us they may just look one block colour in reality they are many different shades in the UV spectrum. Tetrachromatic means they have 4 groups of cones whereas humans only have 3
  151. 151What sort of vision do snakes have?Infrared 'vision' using pit organs (evolved independently in several groups)
  152. 152Where can fluorescence be found within the vertebrates?Mostly known from the marine fish and hawksbill turtle but recently discovered by Taboada et al (2017) in amphibians (polka-dot tree frog)
  153. 153Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify others of their speciesVocalisations in red-fronted lemurs (Rakotonirina et al., 2016)
  154. 154Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify others of the opposite genderSkin chemical tasting in leopard geckos (Mason & Gutzke, 1990)
  155. 155Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify familyParent-offspring recognition in king penguins (Jouventin et al 1999)
  156. 156Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify location/sexual receptivityPheromones in salamanders (Woodley 2010)
  157. 157Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify size/qualityRoaring in red deer (Reby et al., 2005)
  158. 158Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify dangerReferential alarm calls in vervet monkeys (Seyfarth et al 1980) - use different calls for different types of predator e.g. terrestrial, arial
  159. 159Give an example of using communication to identify foodHumans solicit help from honeyguides (Spottiswoode et al., 2016) - humans give vocal signal which tells honeyguide to lead them to the honey
  160. 160Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify hungerBegging in nestling birds (Kilner & Johnstone 1997
  161. 161Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify age/dominanceBadge size in house sparrows (Veiga 1993)
  162. 162Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify moodFacial expression in chimpanzees (Parr & Waller 2006)
  163. 163Give an example of an animal that uses communication to identify many different thingsOne bird vocalisation may signal species, sex, age, quality etc.
  164. 164What 5 things does the signalling theory state?Signals stable if both sides benefit; some signals are discrete (digital/yes or no); some are graded (analogue/variable strength); some are mixed (redundancy/multiple messages); selection favours specificity (stereotypy: reduces ambiguity but may allow deception)
  165. 165What are some functional constraints of communication?Discrete vs. graded; short vs. long distance; simple vs. complex
  166. 166Give an example of a discrete constraint and a graded constraintDiscrete - sexual dimorphism
    Graded - alarm calls (but these can also be discrete)
  167. 167When would short vs. long distance apply as a constraint?In contact calls; broad frequency range of a call can only be used in short range as frequencies become attenuated over long distances (long distance calls tend to be in one set frequency and tend to use repetition)
  168. 168Where do simple vs. complex constraints apply?Kinship vs. individuality; recognition thresholds (can have recognition error where 2 normal distributions (of calls, say) overlap - happens with complex signals)
  169. 169What are some sender constraints at the species level?Phylogeny - predispositions (ancestry)
    Physiology - some sensory modalities unavailable and limits to signal range
  170. 170What are some sender constraints at the individual level?Physiology; condition-dependence (e.g. house finch - carotenoid pigment used to colour its front badge which is used for attracting mates is obtained from a good diet)
  171. 171What is the handicap principle?The idea that organisms have costly physical traits in order to convey a good level of fitness - e.g. peacock e.g. stickleback has red patch on their throat which is costly to produce from carotenoids (also correlates to parasite resistance)
  172. 172What is the developmental stress hypothesis?The idea that growth, stresses and nutrition in early life affects development in later life
  173. 173Give some examples of vertebrates that give evidence for the development stress hypothesisStarling song quality is affected by nutritional stress; zebra finch song quality is affected by stress hormones; swallow tail streamer symmetry is related to early life stress - asymmetry of the tail streamers reduces their attractiveness
  174. 174What are some receiver constraints at the species level?Phylogeny and physiology e.g. signal space; signal matching; receiver bias e.g. stickleback redness in males - females were already predisposed for looking out for red as this signals food and so communication has evolved to exploit this bias
  175. 175What are some receiver constraints at the individual level?Signal matching e.g. group membership - individuals modify call to match group in black-capped chickadees; condition
  176. 176What do some male bats do to compensate for changing age and development of females in terms of communication?Adjust frequency of echolocation to females frequency range
  177. 177Give some examples of anti-predator signalsTail-flicking ('i've seen you' shown by white-tailed deer); stotting (for confusion or to display their good condition shown by springbok); alarm calls (a secondary benefit?); mobbing to get rid of the predator (reciprocity between interspecific prey species - both benefit)
  178. 178Give an example of aposematic colouration and state what type of mimicry this isSalamanders - red-backed newts show Batesian mimicry of Eastern red-spotted newt
  179. 179Give an example of mutualismDay gecko gets honeydew from a leafhopper insect and in return it may prevent its death from predatory insects
  180. 180What is the Clever Hans effect?From a horse that people thought could count by tapping its hoof but it turns out it was just receiving signals from its owner that the owner was not aware he was giving
  181. 181What are some intraspecific third-party constraints?Other senders - minimise overlap; other receivers - eavesdropping
  182. 182What are some interspecific third-party constraints?Other signallers - some frogs will delay time between calls if an artificial call is played at the same time to minimise overlap; other receivers - eavesdropping; avoid exploitation e.g. passerines use high frequency calls so predators cannot hear them
  183. 183Signals have evolved for .......... ...... in particular environments. What is the hypothesis for this?Effective transmission; the 'acoustic adaptation hypothesis'
  184. 184Give an example of how an organism adapts its communication according to the medium it is inThe low frequency of whale song to travel long distances in the dense medium of water
  185. 185Give an example of how an organism adapts its communication according to the habitat it is inBioluminescence, lack of pigmentation, high light sensitivity in eyes of deep sea fish; woodland bird calls - minimise bouncing and attenuation (receivers however may use attenuation to judge distance)
  186. 186Give an example of an organism that uses gesture as a communication instead of vocalization (as it may not be able to be heard)The Panamanian golden frogs 'wave' at each other to see if they are ready for mating - cannot be heard over the loud sound of running waters
  187. 187How do birds alter their calls in urban areas (effects of anthropogenic influences)?More likely to sing at night and more likely to sing at a higher frequency to overcome the noise of the traffic
  188. 188What are some anthropogenic effects in whale calling?Affects the signals produced by whales through disturbance noises and physical disturbances e.g. whale-watching vehicles, sonar, fishing equipment
  189. 189What has a differential effect on frog species at the same sight?Traffic noise; black-striped frog will decrease calling rate (to wait for a gap) and taipei frog will increase calling rate (to exploit lack of other frog calls)
  190. 190What effects does pile driving (drilling machinery into the ocean) have on fish?Reduces shoal cohesion and coordination; could be due to cross-modality interference
  191. 191What is a benefit of anthropogenic influences on vertebrates?Higher pH enhances the use of male olfactory cues in sticklebacks
  192. 192What 2 things does food provide?Energy for cellular processes (catabolism) and nutrients for growth and repair (anabolism)
  193. 193What are the 3 major categories for vertebrate eating habits? What are some broad adaptations to these types of food sources?Herbivores, carnivores and omnivores; different dentition; herbivores have longer gut for extracting nutrients from the vegetative matter
  194. 194Give an example of a strict herbivore and a strict carnivoreHerbivore - zebra
    Carnivore - great white shark
  195. 195Give an example of a variable herbivore and a variable carnivoreHerbivore - red grouse (young eat invertebrates and adults eat heather)
    Carnivore - badger (eats worms predominantly but also eat fruit and seeds)
  196. 196Why are pandas classed as a herbivorous carnivore?Belongs to the order 'Carnivora' but only eats bamboo
  197. 197Give some examples of what herbivory can be broken down intoFoliovory; frugivory; nectarivory
  198. 198Give some examples of what carnivory can be broken down intoPiscivory; insectivory; cannibalism
  199. 199- The first vertebrates were .... ...., later .... - The first tetrapods were ...., later ...... - The first reptiles were ....., later ..... - ......... came last – a plant-based diet required complex ........Filter feeders; piscivores; piscivores; insectivores; insectivores; carnivores; herbivory; adaptation
  200. 200—

Information

Description
BIOLOGY DEGREE LEVEL (LEC248) Flashcards on LEC248, created by Anna Hollywood on 21/10/2017.
Created by
Anna Hollywood
Views
0
Rating

Feedback

What is it about?

What do you think of the new look?

How do you like it?