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Final Exam Flashcards

Jess Mead Electives English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1t/f: crime in Australia is on the risefalse - we have actually experienced a drop in violent crime recently
  2. 2t/f: if you are murdered or raped, your attacker will most likely be a strangerfalse - you are more likely to be attacked by someone you know
  3. 3t/f: the elderly, and women, are most likely to be attackedfalse: young men are most likely to be victims of crime, especially violent crime
  4. 43 facts about crime: (1) often, our public perceptions of crime do not align with reality, (2) politicians manipulate fear of crime to get votes, (3) and the consequences of crime are severe:)
  5. 5Criminologists explore why people commit crimes, what/where/when/who/how people are likely to offend, and ways to control and prevent crimesit is 'the body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomena. it includes within it's scope the process of making laws, breaking laws and of our reaction toward the breaking of laws. CRIM1000 = the breaking of laws
  6. 6what are some correlates of crime?age
    gender
    race
    ethnicity
    iq, education, mental illness
    social class
    prior offending history, drug use
    neighbourhood
  7. 7causal explanations of crime over time: single factor - < early 20th c multiple factors 1930-1950 criminology as a discipline 1940-now integrated and interdisciplinary approach 1990-nowBasically all you should know is that criminology is currently viewed as an integrated and interdisciplinary approach.
  8. 8We have 3 different levels of explanation for crime: individual level theories, social process theories and social structural theories. What are each of them?Individual level theories: biology, psychology, etc.
    Social process theories: learning, neighbourhoods, etc.
    Social structural theories: sociology, government, etc.
  9. 9There are three frames of reference with criminology: classical, positivist and critical. What does classical criminology purportHumans are self-interested to maximise pleasure and minimise pain. We have to decide what's in our best interest by weighing up the cost and benefits. So, crime is a product of free will - making the cost of crime too high should deter people from doing it.
  10. 10There are three frames of reference with criminology: classical, positivist and critical. What does positivist criminology purportCriminal behaviours are determined by outside factors (not free will). Science can identify causes of crime - causes are biological. With this point of view, is there anything we can do to prevent crime?
  11. 11There are three frames of reference with criminology: classical, positivist and critical. What does critical criminology purportThe most powerful groups get to define what is/isn't a crime. It assumes no agreement in society about the appropriate ways to behave. Punishment reflects the the interests of the powerful groups.
  12. 12What is a criminological theory?A set of assumptions/prepositions or accepted facts that provide a plausible explanation for cause/and/effect relationships with crime.
  13. 13what is 'deviance'?a behaviour that elicits a social reaction by violating the standard of conduct defined by society. It violates the rules, understandings of expectations of social systems.
    This has an odd relationships with crime, for instance pirating is criminal but not super deviant, invading personal space is deviant but not always criminal
  14. 14what is the relationship between deviance and crime?in some societies, deviance and crime are very closely linked, whereas in some, there aren't. Societies with large amounts of oppression have laws that are out of step with perceptions of deviance.
  15. 15social norms call into 4 categories, from 'less deviant' to 'more deviant' behaviour. what are they?Folkaways - non-binding social conventions
    Mores - strong convictions about right and wrong
    Taboo - prohibition of socially offensive acts
    Law - written formal decrees
  16. 16There are four different perspectives on WHAT crime is: sociological, political, psychological and legal. What do they all purport?sociological: crime is a behaviour that threatens social order
    political: crime is a socially constructed behaviour
    psychological: crime is a manipulative behaviour
    legal: crime is a behaviour that's defined by the state, proscribed by criminal law and subject to sanction
  17. 17there are 2 components that constitute a crime, the act and the intent. what's that?act = the conduct that caused the crime
    intent = prescribed state of mind
    assumption is that all adults have the necessary mental capacity to make judgements and take responsibility for their actions (children under 10 deemed incapable of committing crimes)
  18. 18what are some data sources used to measure crime?administrative date: 'official statistics' that go through a regulatory agency, and self-report studies
    measuring crime helps us to study the nature/extent of crime in society, track crime trends, evaluate theories of crime and assess the inaccuracies of crime stats
  19. 19what are the 3 typical classifications of crime?violent
    property
    other
  20. 20what are some benefits of using administrative data sources to measure crime?coverage
    comparing across jurisdictions
    a measure of operational functioning/cost
    a measure of system impact against society
    possible to apply rates for improved comparison
  21. 21what are some limitations of using administrative data sources to measure crime?undercounting
    jurisdictional differences
    changing legal and social conditions
    seasonal variation
  22. 22what is the 'dark figure on crime'?many crimes (sometimes 60-80%) are not reported or discovered in official data. This is also visible in the 'crime funnel', from number of actual offences (top) to imprisonments (bottom)
  23. 23What are some of the most common crimes that people report?motor vehicle theft
    break-in
    theft from motor vehicle
    malicious property damage
    attempted break-in
    other theft
    (INSURANCE AS A MOTIVATOR)
  24. 24what are some of the most common reasons that people don't report crime?they believe it to be trivial/unimportant
    believe nothing could be done
    believe police to be unwilling
    believe it to be a personal matter
    told someone else
    nothing was stolen
  25. 25we gather self-report data on crime in 2 main ways. what are theywe ask you to tell us about your offending
    we ask you to well us about your victimisation
    they also vary according to method of collection (telephone, internet, focus groups)
  26. 26what are some limitations of using self-report as a data collection method?over-reporting (exaggeration)
    respondent understanding/memory/truth
    can't measure victimless crimes
  27. 27what gender accounts for the majority of victims of violent crime? (murder, attempted murder, robbery)Men
  28. 28In what forms of victimisation do women outnumber men?sexual assault, kidnapping/abduction
  29. 29What gender (in terms of crime victimisation) is most likely to know their assailant?women
  30. 30A correlate is a factor that is related to crime, but not necessarily a cause. What 4 conditions are required to make 'causal' statements?1. correlation
    2. theoretical rational
    3. timing
    4. absence of 'superiousness'
    this makes it deterministic, not probabilistic
  31. 31why gender matters when we think about crime: males account for about 78% of offenders in Australia, and the national male offender rate is about 4 times the female offender rate. While males > females, the rates still differ across states/terrirotiesEarly criminological theories primarily explained the criminal behaviour of men. When female offenders were considered, theories were usually simplistic, implied women's inferiority or assumed psychological/biological differences between genders
  32. 32Sex-role theories often explained general differences in crime in 3 main ways. what were they?the role of socialisation (girls are socialised differently to boys)
    social control (girls are more supervised)
    opportunity (women have a reduced access to opportunities to commit crimes)
  33. 33What crimes are more likely to be committed by men/women?men: violent crimes, sexual crimes
    women: theft, drugs
  34. 34what is Adler's 'liberation thesis'? Hint: it has something to do with gender and crime.The theory is that women would become more violent as they moved out of traditional social roles. This would cause an increase in opportunity to commit violent and white-collar crimes. Liberation will CAUSE an increase in female crime rates
  35. 35what is the 'radical feminist perspective' on the gender gap in crime?women commit less crime because of the oppression from the patriarchy
    female crime levels will = male crime levels when males exert less control over women
  36. 36there are two competing stories to the worldwide crime drop - deep-root causes and moral poverty. What do each of them purport?root causes - liberal argument: poverty and inequality are the rood causes of crime. The solution is to reduce inequality
    moral poverty: conservative argument: solution to crime is stricter punishment/incarceration
  37. 37what are some of the questions that were asked when trying to find a factor that had a CAUSAL relationship to the crime drop?is there any data on it?
    is the argument valid across countries?
    Does it have a regression to the mean?
    is it because of e-crimes?
    is it varied by type of crime?
  38. 38what is the only explanation for the crime drop that answers all of these questions?increased security - this is a CAUSAL relationship
  39. 39the australian crime drop lagged behind the rest of the world. Why? (some suggestions)declining heroin use
    increasing imprisonment
    better economy
    ageing population
    drop in lead exposure
    policing effectiveness increase
    increase in security
  40. 40Briefly explain the New York Compstat modelit uses stats to hold commanders responsible for crime in their districts. this made them better at their job, as it increased their level of responsibility
  41. 41What factors may influence why crime varies across place?Land uses: shopping centres, train stations, schools, etc.
    People residing in area: education level, unemployment/disadvantage level, number of renters
  42. 42What is Balbi and Gurney find when mapping crime types across France?Violent crime was more likely to occur in low education areas
    Property crime was more likely to occur in high education areas (more wealth = more stuff to steal)
  43. 43What are 'hot spots' in policing?areas of high crime rates. This helps police allocate resources in hot spots (and at hot times)
  44. 44One of the problem with talking about area-based crime measurement is the units of analysis used. Do we use some streets, a suburb or a whole city? this unit can vary greatly between studies, theories, countries and over time, and can lead to MAUP. What is this?Modifiable arial unit problem - what relationship you see may depend on where you geographically draw the line.
  45. 45In the 19th C, Chicago experienced a massive population boom and a huge fire in 1871. Due to this, slum areas developed and there was a high level of social disorder, leading to the emergence of urban sociology. What community characteristics foster crime and why is it spatially clustered?This led to some assumptions: field work is important, social structure is unstable (which is worse for lower classes), and human nature is good - crime is a normal response to abnormal conditions. It takes a consensus veiw on law
  46. 46Briefly describe Robert Park's 'ecology of crime' theorycities are environments like in nature
    there's a competition to move up the ladder and be in zones that are more desireable than others
    this follows a progression of invasion, dominance and succession
    zones share social characteristics
  47. 47Burgess proposed a concentric model zone to explain why crime is localised in specific areas. This theory suggests that cities consist of 5 zones, each gradually growing outward by dominating the next. Crime is gratest in the zone of transition (outside CBD, before working class)Concentric zone model = CBD, transition, working-class zone, residential zone and commuter zone
    it's valid in some areas like Winnipeg but not in others like Brisbane (most desirable places to live are actually in and around the city)
  48. 48What are some important considerations about Burgess' concentric model theory?what about variation in the geography of cities, allowing for expansion (or not)
    there's now a decentralisation of a lot of resources, such as shops
    urban renewal and gentrification e.g. west end
    in some cities, inner-city pay be rick and in others, it may be poor
  49. 49Social disorganisation was a theory designed by Shaw McKay, who examined the life histories of delinquents, and performed in-depth case studies. He created spot maps, rate maps and zone maps analysing these juveniles in areashe found that areas w the highest rates of school truancy had the highest rates of delinquency, and in chicago this happens closest in the city and moves progressively outwards. This is a 'kinds of places', not a 'kinds of people' argument of crime.
  50. 50Briefly describe social disorganisation theoryAs a result of three adverse conditions (residential instability, diversity, poverty), the community lacks a common voice and a willingness to engage/participate, which means that they are unable to realise common values and goals to maintain order through informal means.
  51. 51define the social disorganisation modelPoverty + diversity + residential instability
    =
    weakened regulatory capacity
    =
    crime
  52. 52what are some critiques of social disorganisation theorybit focus on 'lower class crime' and urban crime. What is you are in high crime areas but you don't commit crime?
    Do changes in the environment change human behaviour (ecological determinism)
    neighbourhoods are more complete than socio-demographic characteristics
    what about white collar crime
  53. 53why does social disorganisation theory highlight the failure of community-organising crime prevention programmes?These programmes are hard to implement in high crime and highly mobile communities.
    They are more likely to be effective in low crime neighbourhoods with a high regulatory capacity anyway
  54. 54social disorganisation predicts an INDIRECT link between immigration and crime. But does this really happen?This is not a universal finding. It is more to to with the reasons people are moving (wanting to vs. needing to)
  55. 55one of the contemporary developments of the social disorganisation theory involved community ties and informal control. This wanted to measure the 'weakened regulatory capacity' seen in the previous model. So it listed 3 mechanisms linked to levels of crime. what were they?the ability of the community to exercise control over adolescent peer groups
    the existence of locally-based friendship groups
    the existence of community-based organisations and institutions.
  56. 56collective efficacy is a combination of mutual trust and a willingness to intervene in task-specific ways for the common good. So Sampson's collective efficacy argument said that when this doesn't happen in neighbourhoods, there's crime.So even disadvantage will not mean anything if there's high CE. Places high in social bonds but low in CE can actually have more crime. (so strong ties are not the important factor).
  57. 57What are the 2 categories that you can use when measuring collective efficacy?social cohesion and trust
    informal social control
  58. 58So when we have high Collective efficacy, we generally have low crime, even when we control for other factorsIMPORTANT TO REMEMBER
  59. 59Briefly describe Zimbardo's broken windows experiment?Zimbardo left a car in a high crime part of NYC, that was vandalised within 10 minutes. when he left a car in an affluent part of california, it was untouched for a week. BUT, after he broke the windows of the car, it was vandalised and stolen from like in NYC
  60. 60there are two forms of disorder: physical disorder and social disorder. Briefly touch on each onePhysical disorder: deterioration of urban landscapes (graffiti, broken windows, garbage)
    social disorder: behaviour usually involving strangers, such as verbal harrassment on the street, open prostitution, public intoxication etc.
  61. 61Briefly describe broken window's theorySigns of physical and social disorder are invitations for crime. It declines crime for 3 reasons (social norms and conformity, lack of routine monitoring and social signalling)
  62. 62In the NY case study, they tried to examine broken windows theory by cleaning up subways to target low level grafitti crimes. there was then a drop in violent crime.but was this causation? this drop in violent crime happened everywhere else in the US, too
  63. 63what are the 2 main ways to measure disorder in an area?social observation (a bit more objective)
    Surveys (perceptions of disorder are still important, as we have an implicit bias to see more/less disorder deepening on the types of people living there)
  64. 64So, broken windows thesis says that signs of disorder make crime. And Sampson's reformulation says that low collective efficacy makes crime and disorderSo are they just outcomes of the same process?
    IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER
    So Sampson thinks that both crime and disorder reflect the same process
  65. 65One social experiment in housing was done, where in St Louis, they got rid of the existing neighbourhood (high crime, poor housing) and built a new neighbourhood for residents. What happened after?the living conditions soon began to decline after its completion
    by the 1960s it was infamous for its crime, segregation and poverty
    it was an iconic failure of public policy planning - it didn't deal with the problems of the area (e.g. jobs), just gave them new appts
  66. 66NEIGHBOURHOOD THEORIES: KEY TAKEAWAY MESSAGES- we all agree that crime is concentrated in certain areas, but disagreement is on the explanation
    - it started in the chicago school but theories are applicable to areas around the world
    - socially disorganised neighbourhoods have higher levels of instability/diversity /disadvantage
    - Collective efficacy can mediate the effect of these conditions on crime
  67. 67what is the free will vs determinism argument for crime?free will - we decide to commit a crime
    deteminism - there are biological factors for why we commit a crime
    though, this is an artificial dichotomy - often it's a combination of both nature and nurture
  68. 68the basic principles of individual theories of criminality often have a lot to do with deterministic explanations, rather than free will explanations.Early biological theories purported that crime is a result of biological defects, visible in physical characteristics
    crime was seen to be as abnormal and biologically inferior, and was not a 'rational behaviour' (as free will assumes (or rational to the individual)).
  69. 69What is phrenology? (franz gall)franz beleived that the brain controlled everything, that the shape of the head represents the shape of the brain, and that external bumps in the skull can tell you about your personality. a bump behind the ear is more likely to mean that you were aggressive/criminal
  70. 70Lombroso put forward the idea of the 'born criminal', by studying anatomical features of the human body to identify a physical criminal type. he believed that criminals were throwbacks to biologically inferior times. he believed in 3 types of criminal. what were they?born criminals (anatomically identifiable)
    insane criminals (developmentally disabled)
    criminaloids (occasional criminals, commit under certain circumstances, majority of offenders)
  71. 71Lombroso has origins in 'scientific positivism': understanding individuals and society by taking a scientific approach. Positivism is the use of scientific methods to test hypotheses:)
  72. 72What was the main critique of Lombroso's 'borm criminal' characteristics (e.g. sloping forehead, unusual ears, asymmetry of the face, excessive length of arms, etc.)He didn't look among non-criminals, so he didn't test the null-hypothesis. We are likely to find the same freqeucnty of physical characteristics among the non-criminal population
  73. 73As part of the biological, deterministic argument for crime, William Sheldom proposed 3 body types (somatotypes) that can tell you whether someone will engage in crime. He did most of this research unethically with ivy league college men What were they and what were their characteristics?ectomorphs: skinns, delicate, small face, sharp features: they are likely to be brainy, introverted, sensitive to noise
    endomorphs: plump, short, round, soft: they are relaxed, social and a softie
    mesomorphs: muscle, dense bone, heavy chest: they are likely to be energetic courageous and aggressive
  74. 74what brings some discreditation to sheldon's 3 somatotypes theory?swimmers had approx the same body types as criminals
    the studies had a subjective rating system
    doesn't try to explain why the link exists, or any link between nature and nurture.
    further research find that mesomorphs who became delinquent had additional environmental problems
  75. 75a biological deterministic question of crime that often gets asked is: is crime hereditary? It can be reffered to as the intergenerational transmission of criminality, and is an easy, deteminstic approach.some criminal family studies were run, where there were conclusions that the environment tends to produce habits which may become hereditary, and that there may be a genetic basis for feeblemindedness and criminality (EARLY research)
  76. 76what is eugenics?the theory that socially problematic behaviours are inherited and can be reduced/eliminited by preventing the carriers of a 'bad seed' from reproducing (or sometimes raising)
    Nicole rafter rejected this and showed how feeble-mindedness was socially constructed. Fenix Whipple and Barbara Smith are examples of some people exposed to eugenics treatment. Eugenics centres use dot exist all around the world
  77. 77What did early twin studies find with the potential genetic impact on criminality? Hint: they used both fraternal and identical twinsFraternal twins: when one twin was sentenced, the other would be about 12% of the time
    identical: when one twin was sentenced, the other would be able 36% of the time
    implies some genetic component
  78. 78what did longitudinal twin studies show on the effect of marijuana use?it negatively impacts vocab scores, but there was no sig difference in visuo-spatial tasks, picture arrangement, digit symbol coding or arithmetic
    so verbal defects are a result of ENVIRONMENTAL factors, not a neurotoxic effect
  79. 79One method of separating the influence of inherited traits from environmental conditions is to use adoption studies. Early studies have suggested both an influence of genetics and environment on criminality tendency. What are the 2 types of modern day adoption studies?comparing adoptive parents with biological parents
    comparing outcomes for adoptive siblings with biological siblings
  80. 80there are 4 measures used in adoption studies: - additive genetic influences - non-additive genetic influences - shared environmental influences -non-shared environmental influences.non-shared environmental influences (i.e. different experiences across people) constitute the most variation
    then additive genetic, shared env. and non-additive genetic
    so there's a bigger influence of nurture, but still evidence of genetic factors
  81. 81Adrian raine argues that 50% of violence genetic. Murdered have significantly less activity in their prefrontal cortex than other normies. If offenders had low activation in anterior cingulate, they were twice as likely to reoffend in the next 3 years, males with smaller amygdalas are more likely to commit a crime.but what odes this say about how we can hold individuals accountable for crimes that they commit? Where goes justice and responsibility?
  82. 82Antisocial people have different levels of neurotransmitters than other people. Is it possible to influence this to try and decrease criminality?Yes. With drugs and certain types of food, and reducing living in stressful conditions. but this is a controversial area of research (how do we ethically roll this out?)
  83. 83there is a particular type of gene (MAOA) called the 'warrior gene'. What happens when we have low levels of it?We are likely to have higher levels of aggression
  84. 84Is there a relationship between the nervous system and criminalitymixed results
    anti social people are more likely to have lower resting heart rates and lower levels of skin conductance
  85. 85There's a correlation between testosterone and aggression. but we don't know if test = aggression or the other way around. We also don't know if situations can influence testosterone levels:)
  86. 86Mums who drink/smoke/eat bad foods during pregnancy significantly increase the risk of violence. Foetal alcohol syndrome increases conviction rate 19 times. It can affect growth and intellect, and it's prevalence is a real problem (especially in indigenous populations)though targeting or shaming women who drink when pregnant doesn't work to decrease the rates.
  87. 87Henry Goddard once used the newly-developed IQ test to assume that an IQ below 75 made someone 'feebleminded' (more likely to be criminal). He wanted to institutionalise low IQ offenders and stop them from reproducing. However, he then changed his mind, saying that other factors must be considered.the conclusion, though, was that education may prevent crime.
  88. 88IQ, or intelligence, is supposed to be an innate characteristic that you can't study for. The IQ test has been around for a while and been regularly revised. There are many dimensions to the IQ test, including cognitive, visual perception and spatial tasks.However, IQ tets are not always culturally relative or environmentally relative. Hirschi and Hindelang eventually showed that UQ does not directly cause delinquency, it's mediated through a host of school variables. mercer also critiqued it because of cultural bias
  89. 89there's been a strong debate about IQ over time. Hernstein and Murray tried to say that it was decreasing over time because smarter people were having less children, but this was disproved bu Gould.The Flynn effect is the phenomena that IQ is actually rising over time
  90. 90why are those with intellectual disability over represented in the criminal justice systemlikely because of legal representation, childhood experiences and an increased number 'getting caught'
  91. 91Australia has a huge gap in education scores between non-indigenous people with a high SES background (top), non-indigenous people with a low SES background and indigenous people (bottom). If we think that education and crime are linked then it's no wonder why indigenous people are overrepresented in prison populationswe are currently trying to close this gap.
  92. 92what are the differences between personality TRAITS and personality DISORDERS?personality traits are habitual patterns of thought, emotion and behaviour. They are relatively stable over time. Can include cardinal traits (influencing behaviour), central traits (found in some degree in everyone) and secondary traits
    personality disorders are deeply ingrained and enduring behavioural patterns, and significantly deviate from normal behaviour
  93. 93The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was aimed to measure someone's psycho-pathy and personality structure. What characteristics does it measure?aniety, obsessiveness, depression, alienation, social discomfort, bizzare thoughts, anger, etc.etc.
    it found that criminals are much more likely to score higher on indicatrs of psychopathy than non-crims (causal)
  94. 94There are 2 'factors' of psychopathy: factor 1 and factor 2. what characteristics do each have?Factor 1 is more dangerous than factor 2 - more violence and more manipulative, patient and in-control
    Factor 2 is more to do with impulse control, some argue that they are more 'sociopaths'
  95. 95Nowadays we use the Five Factor Model (FFM) or personality dimensions (OCEAN). What are they?Openness to experience
    Concienciousness
    Extroversion
    Agreeableness
    Neuroticism
  96. 96Here are some take-home messages for psychopathyThe last 10-15 years have seen an increasing move toward the use of dimensional, rather than categorical approaches to psychopathy
    There is caution around psychopathy diagnoses - be aware of non-clinical claims and pop-psychology
  97. 97briefly define Terri Moffet's dual taxonomy theoryThere are 2 types of offenders: Adolescent limited offenders (most people) and Life course persistent offenders (the people you need to look out for). These people have a more impulsive personality style. Timing/duration of offending is critical to the definition. Each has a different etiology of onset -> persistence -> and desistence
  98. 98Give me some information on life-course persistent offenders. What percentage of offenders are they? What are their defining characteristics?They make up 5% of offenders
    They have an early onset linked to pre/post natal care and environmental conditions. They have a high versatility and a high level of persistence . Often have neuropsychological deficits seen in temperament, behaviour, development, etc. they have a reactive interaction (react to environment with their particular style) and a proactive interaction (selecting environments to support their lifestyle). They don't desist by failing to learn social norms and becoming ensnared in a deviant lifestyle, e.g. by prosecution. Treatment difficult in adulthood, though RCTS are being trialled to offset reoffending
  99. 99what are we currently trying to do to treat LCP long term domestic violence offenders?CBT aimed to improve communication skills, non-violent assertiveness, social skills and anger management techniques. It also addresses the emotions lying beneath the problem.
    Like with all LCP offenders, it's very hard to treat. not smashing results so far
  100. 100Give me some information on adolescent limited offenders. What are their defining characteristics?Late onset (about late adolescent). Large group of people (about 1/3). Low versatility, low violence, low persistence, high desistence. They have a lack of consistency in offending <- important. Mainly happens because of a desire for independence, and desist because they begin to enter adulthood
  101. 101While there is not a huge amount of people in the 'ever offended' population with mental illness, there is a lot of people in the 'mental illness' population who have ever offended. People with mental illnesses represent the majority of convictions in what kinds of crime?public order offences and offences against justice.
    In female offenders, type of mental illness is usually emotional (anxiety, PTSD). In males it's drugs.
    mentally ill offenders are more likely to be sent to prison than non-mentally ill offenders
  102. 102Clinical predictions of future dangerousness has very limited rates of success. Selective incapacitation will never be ethical or foolproof. But there has been a big rise in data recently that's led to more accurate risk assessment models in criminology. Why do we want these models?limited resources in the CJS
    treatment is expensive
    help to work out future criminal likelihood
    can be used with juvenile offenders, terrorists etc.
  103. 103Clinical predictions of future dangerousness has very limited rates of success. Selective incapacitation will never be ethical or foolproof. But there has been a big rise in data recently that's led to more accurate risk assessment models in criminology. What are some things that we use to try and make these models?prior antisocial behaviour
    antisocial peer groups
    lack of interpersonal relationships
    performance/attendance in academic settings
    relationship with alcohol
    presence of antisocial cognitions
    **we are now getting much better are putting risk assessments and treatments around new offenders(about 75 times more) **
  104. 104what are some shared assumptions of social process theories?- human beings are best understood in relation to their environment
    - social processes lead to crime
    - we all can commit crime as a result of learning, social ties, bonds, or other social processes
    - not everyone exposed to negative social conditions will commit a crime. Symbolic interactionism = same experience, different interpretations
  105. 105There are 3 sub-theories underneath social process theories. what are theycontrol theories
    learning theories
    cultural/subculture theories
  106. 106Briefly describe the bobo doll experiment outcomechildren who observe an adult mistreating a bobo doll will likely also be violent, but this is learned, as they won't be violent if the adult does not model this behaviour. Closest imitation is in adult of the same sex. This has implication for TV violence, etc.
  107. 107What are tarde's 3 laws of imitation?1. law of close contact
    2. law of imitation of superiors by inferiors
    3. law of insertion (crime types will fluctuate in relevance)
    it lays the foundation for the idea that criminal behaviour could be a learned behaviour. A weakness, though, is that someone needs to think of the behaviour to start with
  108. 108Sutherland devised differential assocition theory, and argued that crime is normal learned behaviour, not explained by biology or psychology. Learning includes the techniques of committing a crime, as well as the ___ ____ ___ and ___. Criminal behaviour is not an expresison of needs and values, as both bank robbers and uni students are out to make $$motives
    drives
    rationalisations
    attitudes
  109. 109Differential association theory says that individuals will become criminal after an exposure to an excess of definitions toward legal codes as unfavourable over favourable. Differential associations may vary in what 4 factors?frequency
    intensity
    duration
    priority
  110. 110What kind of crimes does differntial association theory apply to?a lot, as it can explain theft and white collar crimes. A lot of theories can't do this (especially with white collar crimes)
  111. 111How would differential association work as an explanation of the age-crime curve?- corresponds with rise and drop of exposure to delinquent peers
    - strong inverse to attachment to parents and delinquent peers
    - changes in life course can limit associations (marriage, jobs, etc.)
  112. 112What are some critiques of differential association theory?does not explain all types of crime (impulsive, crimes of passion)
    Not all of us are deviant when exposed to deviant peers
    Does not explain the direction of peer influence (birds of a feather flock together)
    had to measure and test e.g. with definitions of legal codes, defining 'motives' 'attitudes', etc.
    overlooks individual agency
    do people of different cultural backgrounds learn differently?
  113. 113Burgess and aker's social learning theory is a reformulation of differential association theory. It incorporated a more 'modern' view on how we learn: not only ideas, but also behaviours. Fir instance, it incorporates how we can also learn through observing consequences of behaviours on others. What were his 4 sources of learning?1. differential association (like sutherland)
    2. definitions that one attaches to their own behaviour. Can be general or specific
    3. differential reinforcement (actual or anticipated consequences)
    4. imitation
  114. 114what is akers argument for the 'sequence of events' in crime? (social learning theory. Hint: what causes and what maintaines crime)initial involvement: differential association
    reinforcement/conttinuation: differential reinforcement.
    helps when there's loads of positive reinforcement and no penalty
  115. 115what are some critiques of acker's social learning theory?- assimes that those who are criminal interacted with others. but what if you didn't
    - can the theory explain all types of crime?
  116. 116considering social reinforcement theory and differnetial association theory, what are some policy implications that can be considered?mentoring programmes
    locate offenders where they will recieve pro-social exposure
    Police-citizen youth clubs
    parenting programmes
    youth diversion programmes
    limit improsonment
  117. 117Athen's theory of violentization explains why people start to engage in violent behaviour. it had 5 primary stages: brutilization, belligerance, violent performances, virulency and violent predation. briefly describe each oneBrutalization: exposure to violence
    belligerance: had enough of violence
    violent performances: acting out
    virulency: embracing new reputation violent predation: losing the plot
  118. 118there is an intergenerational cycle of domestic violence. this isn't a deterministic relationship, but increases probabilities. True or falsetrue
  119. 119Zimbardo's lucifer effect was focused on why good people do evil things (milgram's study, nazi germany, etc). What did he come up with as a response?there's no the 'bad apple' but a 'bad barrel' - the social system contaminates the individual, rather than the other way around. So the situation can have an effect on the individual. people and situations are in a state of dynamic interaction.
    however, it doesn't explain why dome resist or some turn a blind eye instead of participating
  120. 120cultural deviance theories argue that there's a cultural influence on deviance, and that deviance may reflect some forms of confirmity. What did walter miller think of the 'focal concerns of the lower classs'that while the middle class had values, lower class was more pro-occupied with loval concerns such as toughness, excitement and autonomy. This was heavily criticised
  121. 121cultural deviance theories argue that there's a cultural influence on deviance, and that deviance may reflect some forms of confirmity. What did wolfgang think of the subculture of violence?Where there is a higher tolerance of violence in certain social groups (low SES groups or certain states, e.g. death penalty). Attitudes favouring violence develop through a learning process. This was highly critiqued, also
  122. 122What happened to the kids who passed the marshmallow test later in life?more successful
    lower BMI
    higher test scores at school
    able to DELAY GRATIFICATION
  123. 123control theories of crime purport the opposite to most other theories: that people will commit crime unless there are forces to restrain criminal activity. the guiding question is actually, why do people conform? (not why do people commit a crime). We have 4 main sources of control that stop us committing crimes: internal, external, formal and informal. define eachinternal: your inner thoughts and feelings
    external: people telling you to do or not to do something
    informal: non-structural or less serious
    formal: serious and structural, such as law-enforcement
  124. 124Early control theorists ran studies on juvenile offenders to see who was more likely to ge revocation of their probation. What 2 correlates had the strongest link?weak ego or superego controls
    not regularly attending school
  125. 125early control theorists tried to examine control in light of someone's 'stakes in comfirmity'. what does this meanif you have high stakes in confirmity, you're less likely to engage in crime. if you have low stakes (not much to lose), you're more likely to engage in crime. There's no difference in our desire, just in our stakes
    but how do you develop these stakes to begin with??
  126. 126Early control theories tried to highlight family as the most important source of social control. Control could be direct (punishments/restrictions), internal (conscience) or indirect (idenfitication with parents/peers). however the most important is the availability of legitimate means to satistfy your needsif you have legit means to satisfy needs, the other points don't matter.
  127. 127When early control theories surveyed juvinile delinquency, who did they find who had the most levels of delinquncy (in terms of how they were raised)raised with no control, or complete freedom
    least delinquency happened in groups that reported a strong connection to parents.
    However this group had a lack of ethnic diversity, focussed on rural youth and was administered in high schools (missing dropouts). There also could be repsonse bias
  128. 128Briefly describe reckless containment theoryWe have 2 forms of containment: inner containment (e.g. self concept, goal orientation, frustration tolerance, commitment to values), and outer containment (social reinforcement, supportive relationships, etc.). It was argued that outer containment doesn't really matter if you had good inner containment. However, this is difficult to test, may not generalise to females and has limited empirical support
  129. 129briefly describe maltza's theory on delinquency and driftcriminals don't usually reject conventional moral values, but they 'neutralise' them so that they can commit delinquent acts. Techniques of neutralisation allow for relief from morel constraints and allows young people to 'drift' back and forth between delinquent and conventional behaviour with guilt/shame
  130. 130There are 5 techniques of neutralisaiton that can be used (talking about Malta's theory of drift and delinquency) denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victim, condemnation of condemers and appeal to higher loyalties. expand a bit on eachdenial of responsibility: plead ignorance, or acting under orders, plead as a mistake, shifting blame (to people or events)
    denial of injury: 'nobody was really hurt'
    denial of victim: believe they deserved what they took, 'righful retaliation', paints victim as wrongdoer or as unidentifiable
    condemnation of condemers: blame prosecutors, laws and regulations
    appeal to higher loyalties: actions were 'necessary', difference between legality and morality
  131. 131According to Malta's theory of drift, people neutralise their behaviours so they don't have to suffer the moral consequences of their actions. if we want to neutralise the neutralisations, how would we go about that, from a policy sense?stimulate feelings of conscience
    educational programmes on the harms of crime
    CBT
    restorative justice conferences: what happened to the victim?
  132. 132briefly describe hirschi's social bonds theorypeople who are tightly bonded to social groups like family, school, peers, etc. are less likely to commit delinquent acts
    He found that boys more attached to parents were less likely to commit crimes, and boys more likely to be delinquent had low scores in school, low aspirations (stakes in confirmity) and were less attached to confirming peers
  133. 133What are the 4 elements of social bonds outlined in hirschi's self control theory1. attachment 'attention for and sensitivity to others'
    2. commitment: the degree of your stake of confirmity in working hard
    3. involvment: the amount of time and energy devoted to conventional activities. NOTE some studies show that extra curricular activities increase criminal behaviour, which aligns with differential association theory
    4. belief: the degree to which someone believes in the rules of society
  134. 134What are the policy impliations of hirschi's social bonds theory?parenting training programmes (attachment)
    parent-child activities (attachment)
    foster long-term goals (commitment)
    encourage extra-curricular activities (involvement) - not empirically supported
  135. 135what are some critiques of social bonds theory?Can it be extended to more serious types of crime?
    how can we explain that some crimials have very close bonds to family and friends?
    can you be committed to conforming goals, have the be unattainable, and then commit crime?
    can criminals still have a belief in morality?
  136. 136IN EXAM: what are the 2 extensions to hirschi's self control theory?hirschi and gottfredon's general theory of crime (also referred to as self-control theory)
    2. Sampson and Laub's age-graded theory of informal social control.
  137. 137briefly describe hirschi and gottfredon's self-control theory (or general theory of crime)criminal propensities happen because of low self-control. This is caused by low parental management i childhood. Self-control is stable from 8 years of age, and can be seen through a low threshold for frustration, self-centredness, impulsivity, no perseverance, prefernece for risk-taking and physical over mental activity. Crime happens when there's both a propensity and an opportunity
  138. 138In hischi and gottfredon's self-control theory (general theory of crime), what is the pathway to deviance?parents need to monitor children's behaviour --> low parental supervision --> low self-control --> unable to regulate behaviour/defer gratification --> engagement in crime in adulthood
  139. 139how does hirschi's self-control theory (or general theory of crime) explain the age-crime curve?when there is a spike in crime, this is due to an increase of freedom where there's less influence and more opportunity to engage incrime
    but each person maintains the same desire to commit crime over their life - though changes in opportunity occur
  140. 140what are some primary implications of self-control theory (or general theory of crime)?it is difficult to redirect criminal careers
    intervention must be done early in the life course
    could give rise to earlier punitive sanctions
  141. 141what are some critiques of self-control theory (or general theory of crime)?self-control might be an important predictor but not the only predictor
    does not account for differences in social groups
    is self-control really fixed so early? how much does parenting really have to do w it?
    Is all behaviour explained by low self-control once low-self control is seen?
  142. 142briefly describe sampson and laub's age graded theory of informal social control?the courses of criminal offending will change over the life course
    continuity in offending is explained by 'cumulative continuity' or continud failure at an early age
    turning points of informal social control include jobs, marriage and military service, which explains the age curve. This argues that long-term incarceration won'e work, early intervention is good and turning points are vital.
  143. 143what underlies the theories of anomie and strain?motivation for crime is external
    bigger cultural and social structures are important (jobs, social class, poverty, education, deprivation, lack of opportunity, frustration)
    This explains why more people in certain groups commit crime. It's a SOCIAL STRUCTURAL theory
  144. 144Emile Durkheim was the early pioneer of sociology, and argued that there was something greater than individual actions, a 'social' reality behind our actions. His fundamental question is 'how could society hold together during a period of fundamental and rapid social/economic change?'this is partly due to our modern society (which has individualised labour, lack of religion, less punishment, solidarity based on differences), which leads to organic solidarity (mutual interdependance) rather than mechanical solidarity (kinship). So there are different forms of solidarity, but there's one important thing that's important to keeping societies. CRIME AND HOW WE PUNISH IT. *not tested*
  145. 145To durkheim, crime is simply that which is punished. They are violations of the collective conscience that provoke punishment. 'it is a crime because we condemn it'. it's the ultimate concencus view on crime.crime was seen as 'normal', which plays a number of important functions (both adaptive (change over stagnation), and with boundary maintanence function). Punishment is linked to social solidarity, allowing us to emphasise our shared norms. the process of punishment is cathartic and emotional.
    crime = putrage = collective action = satisfaction --> crime
  146. 146according to durkheim, what was too much or too little of crime a sign of?too little crime: social control is too excessive, social stagnation (not dealing with change)
    too much crime: anarchy, failure of social control, social stability at risk
  147. 147dirkheim argued that when societies change over long periods, more behaviour is tolerates, punishments are less violent and laws are expanded. However, when societies change over short periods, the volume of critical behaviour increases. what is this phenomenon called?anomie
    it is the state of normlessness that occurs when the regulating force of law/morals is threatened or inadequate. Expectaitons about behaviours are confused, unclear, or not present. It's a direct result of weakened moral bonds
  148. 148what are some critiques of durkheim's anomie theory?- underplays the way in which systems of punishment are shaped by the nature and distribution of power in society
    - the assumption of concencus, which was not tested
    - does this apply to all crime types
    - doesnt explain why some groups are punished more than others
    - what about controvertial areas of crime
  149. 149Robert merton tried to take another look at anomie and talked about social structure and anomie. While Durkheim saw anomie as sporadic social change caused by a lack of regulation in modernising societites, what did merton think it was? *important*normlessness caused by a mismatch between common social goals and the legitimate meant to obtain those goals
    e.g. a societal emphasis on cultural values of monetary success, achievement, and competition.
  150. 150according to merton, we all have goals put forward by our society. This is said to be achieved by hard work and deterred gratification, and can be achieved by anybody. The use of fraud or force is easier but forbidden. There's an inflated importance of the goal, but here's the thing: not everyone has the same meant to achieve the goal. there's unequal opportunity. So what happens then?STRUCTURAL STRAIN.
    Most concentrated against people in the lower class and least apparent among people in the upper class. The distribution of crime mirrors the distribution of legitimate opportunities in society. this gives rise to ADAPTIONS to social structural strain
  151. 151Briefly describe Robert Merton's social structural strain theorythere is a block between cultural goals and legitimate means for everyone to achieve those goals. This causes structural strain, which leads to anomie, which leads to adaptions to overcome this anomie
  152. 152robert meton argued that we 'adapt' to social structural strain (not having the means to achieve cultural goals) in one of 5 ways. what are the 5 ways.conformity (having goals and means)
    innovation (having goals but not means) - e.g. drug dealing on the side
    ritualism (having no goals, but means)
    retreatism (no goals, no means) e.g.. dropouts
    rebellionism (any combination)
  153. 153when people tried to test merton's structural strain theory, they measured adolescent's aspirations and expectations, hypothesising that delinquents would have high aspirations but low expecations. what did they find?that delinquents actually have relatively low aspiractions - no great plans
    however this was self-report, so it wasn't a great survey
  154. 154what are some critiques of merton's strain theory?limited support
    explains monetary crimes, but not expressive crimes
    neglects all but the most conventional goals
    essentially, quite out of fashion. focusses oonly on lower class and doesn't explain the barriers to achievment that are present
    doesn't explain why people turn to particular adaptions
  155. 155Cohen was critical of structural strain theory because of its failure to explain juvenile delinquency, and argued tha tyoung people committed crimes that has no useful purpose (though he did keep the emphasis on goal blockage) What did he think about juvenile delinquency as a whole? (in his REACTION FORMATION theory)for young males (who are most overrepresented in crime stats), school represents a quintessential middle class institution. School failure bring on status frustration, which (though the process of reaction formation) causes delinquent subcultures to develop. this forms an alternative status achievement system
  156. 156what are some differences between merton's structural strain theory and cohens reaction formation theorymerton was more focussed in the UTALITARIAN nature of crime
    Cohen places more of an emphasis on how rebellion is a reaction against middle-class values
    cohen focussed more on groups whereas merton focussed on the individual
  157. 157Cloward and Ohlin did work on delinquency and opportunity, saying that to 'innovate', you needed not only the motivation, but the opportunity to learn and use illigitemate means (e.g. associates, where you live, how likely you are ot get caught).some collective adaptions to strain include
    criminal subcultures
    conflict subcultures (no opportunity, violent behaviours)
    and retreatist subcultures
  158. 158what are some common questions about subcultural strain theories?is there an overemphasis on male behaviour? how do females engage in this behaviour?
    do delinquent gangs really reject all conventional goals?
    do gangs and subcultures really SPECIALISE?
  159. 159One of the recent developments in strain theory was agnew's general strain theory. What did he argue (hint: it's individual-level, not social-structural)he believed that emotional strain and an individual's immediate environment is more important, rather than a social structure
    Negaitve emotions create pressure to act
    STRAIN = NEG EMOTIONS = PRESSURE TO ACT = CRIME
  160. 160general strain theory identified 3 types of strain. what are they?- failure to achieve positive goals
    - exposure to noxious circumstances
    - removal of positive stimuli
    examples include low parental supervision, child abuse, failute to achieve goals, homelessness, unemplorment, working in low skilled jobs, etc.
    Some strains are objective (e.g. homelessness) and some are subjective (e.g. job loss)
  161. 161What is the model of general strain theory (process model)straiin (failure to achieve goals, presence of noxious stimuli, removal of pos. stimuli) --> negative emotional states (anxiety, depression) --> coping (or lack thereof) --> delinquent or non-delinquent reaction to strain
    anger important as it makes people disregard consequence and increases the felt injury
  162. 162general strain theory purports that crime will more likely result as a reaction of strains that are: - seen as unjust and intentionally caused by others - are high in magnitude (severity/duration /recency) - are associated with/caused by low social control - create pressures/incentives to rely on illigitimate coping strategiesBullying can be one of these
  163. 163what is the difference in policy implications for stuctural strain vs general (individual) strainstrutural: reduce economic inequality, create more opportunities for wealth among the poor
    individual: increase oscial support, icnrease problem-solving skills, change social environments in which strain occurs e.g. school
  164. 164childhood aggression is NOT the strongest predictor of persistent antisocial behaviour over the life course. True/FalseFalse
    The etiology of aggression is also particularly genetic. The interactions that take place between a child and their social environment are key in shaping trajectories of criminal behaviour.
  165. 165there are two kinds of aggression: proactive and reactive. briefly decribe each oneproactive: 'instrumental aggresion' - goal-directed behaviour aimed to achieve an objective. likely to be driven by goals, and typically predatory and calculated
    reactive: 'hostile aggression' - performed in response to provocation. likely to be driven by values and perceptions. typically impulsive and fear-based
  166. 166there are two other catrgories of aggression: overt and covert. briefly decribe each oneovert: direct physical or verbal aggression
    covert: 'relational' or 'social' aggression', can include social exclusion, gossiping, spreading rumours etc.. It's more sophisticated, less we--researched and more often seen in girls
  167. 167the hostile attribution bias is meant to explain why aggressive behaviour may occur. Briefly describe it.Aggresison happens from a tendency for children to interpret other's behaviours as aggressive, even when neutral/ambiguous. Essentially, it's a cognitive distortion. In lab experiments, children who are mistreated at home were more likely to misread neutral extressions as aggressive compared to other kids. their aggression is then reactive to a percieved threat
  168. 168One theory of aggresion was proposed by George patterson, and talked about 'early starters' and 'late starters'. it was a transactional theory of aggression. Briefly describe itEarly starters with aggression are typically exposed to bad parenting, typically perform low in school, gravitate toward a deviant peer group and their antisocial behaviour escalates throughout their life.
    Late starters with aggression engage in delinquency during adolescence and declines during adulthood. Similar to Moffit's adolescent-limited group. The delinquency is typically non-violent and lower level
  169. 169that did richard tramblay think about the origins of aggression?most physical aggression is innate, and must be unlearned for children to be socialised. There is a big emphasis on early interventions, and supports a GxE (gene and environment) and epigenetic interaction model (so testosterone twin data, also showing that high test can lead to social dominance). He also emphasises hyperactivity and impulsivity as key for persisting in crime
  170. 170What is a GxE model for aggression?it combines environmental and genetic factors to explain the risk of being aggressive.
    Environmental models include family contexts and school contexts
    Genetic models include high testosterone and weak frontal lobe functioning
  171. 171from this information, there are some implications regarding the best interventions for preventing aggression. One suggestion is family-based interventions that teach maternal warmth and pro-social, consistent parent-child communication - ones that offer support from family onwards are more effectiveAnother suggestion are school-based interventions that are child-foccusssed, classroom based and schoolwide, aiming to promote social cohesion and prosocial behaviour.
    There are some suggestions for family/school multi-level programmes, but they are challenging to deliver and evaluate
  172. 172what was the gluek study, and what did it find? (hint, longitudinal)It was a longitudinal study of two groups of adolescent boys (delinquent, and non delinquent). They were studied throughout most of their lives.
    Laub and Sampson found that desistance results from a few key factors: family, military service, marriage and school/work. This emphasises that informal social control processes are critical to shaping trajectories of cirme.
    Their inquiry had 3 main components: a explanation for juvinile delinquency, an exploration of rht transition from adolescence to adulthood and an explanation for adult criminal behaviour
  173. 173marriage is seen as an event that can change the course of delinquency/aggression over the life span for the better. Why?*QUALITY OF MARRIAGE MATTERS*
    likely to serve as another form of informal social control
    reduce time spent with delinquent peers (especially in cohabitation)
  174. 174school and work is seen as an event that can change the course of delinquency/aggression over the life span for the better. Why?increases social and institutional ties
    increased commitment and stability, and desire to maintain that stability
  175. 175military service is seen as an event that can change the course of delinquency/aggression over the life span for the better. Why?sense of belonging
    sense of social responsibility
    informal social control
    SIMILAR RESULTS NOT FOUND RECENTLY - MILITARY SERVICE CAN ACTUALLY LEAD TO HIGHER LEVELS OF VIOLENCE
  176. 176Gottfredson and hirschi said that the connection between school, work, marriage and military service and decreasing delinquency was spurious. what did they say was the driving factor instead?self-control, which results in self-selection toward these pathways
  177. 177what is a common factor among developmental theories of crime?assuming that different factors have a different influence on a person at different points in their life
    explain crime and HOW IT VARIES over the life course
    tries to pinpoint the onset and desistance of crime
  178. 178the philadelphia cohort study was a longitudinal study of a male cohort, over 20 years. it found that ___% of the juveniles accocunted for 52% of the contact with the police, and 70% of all felony offences. This implies that there's a small group of ___ crimials. The solution? lock up these chronic young offenders6%
    career criminals
  179. 179in queensland, we have four pillars for youth and crime: intervene early, keep children out of course, keep children out of custody and reduce re-offending. This is because a v small % of young offenders are committing most crimes and causing a lot of harmso while the reasons are the same as the philidelphia birth cohort study, it suggests the opposite RE selective incarceration
  180. 180the cambridge study of delinquent development was a longitudinal study that followed the criminal careers of 411 London boys. It found that a small group committed the majority of offences, that childhood factors predicted continuity, that adolescent offended is motivated by a desire for ___, ___ and __ with peers, and other similar things from the gluek studymaterial goods
    excitement
    status with peers
    NOTE: ONLY WITH BOYS
  181. 181the Pittsburch youth study aimed to find promotitive factors of non-delinquency, by doing a longitudinal study of youth from high school children. They found 5 main promotitive factors. Try and name 3.1. being accountable
    2. believing one is likely to get caught
    3. low physical punishment from parents
    4. low per substance use
    5. having a pro-social relationship with peers
  182. 182the multi-systemic therapy (MST) aimes to promote the development of pro-social peers.it works outward, targetting the child, then family, then peers, then school, then neighbourhood, then community and culture. Family is of the highest importance
  183. 183the dunedin multidisciplinary health and development study followed the lives of 1037 babbies both between 1972 and 1973 in new zealand, since their birth. What theory was inspired by this study?moffit's dual taxonomy
    (adolescent-limited offenders (95%))
    (life-course persistent offenders (5%))
  184. 184the rochester youth development study was HUGE longitudinal study done on both boys and girls, and collected loads of data such as school dropout, gun ownership, social class, social networks, educational success etc., and measures it against delinquency.what they found was not the socialisation model (that delinquent peers caused crime) or the selection model (that crime caused delinquent peers), but an alignment with THORNBERRY'S interactional model (with bidirectional influences)
  185. 185what is the difference between career criminals and criminal careerscareer criminals are your life-course persistent offenders: They commit fewer crimes as they age but the behaviour is still persistent
    criminal careers: decline in crime happens due to decline in participation, can only be seen through longitudinal data
  186. 186gottfredson and hirschi believed that EVERYONE ages out of crime. True or false>true
  187. 187there are more life-course models being developed now in refernce to crime over the lifespan. It's now acknowledged that offending trajectories differ for different people - some are career criminals, but careers vary.though generally: onset peaks between 8-14, prevalence peaks age 15-19, desistance peaks between 20-29the earlier the onset, the greater the duration, individuals can change over time, small portions of the population make the largest portion of crime, most offenders are adolescent-limited, versatility lies with the most serious offenders and they tend to specialise as they get older
  188. 188does classical criminology think that: we are naturally good or bad? we are rational thinkers who weight costs and benefits? we are uncontrolled risk-takers?yes
    yes
    no
  189. 189how does classical criminology argue the best way to reduce crime is?increase the effort needed to do the crime
    decrease the rewards
    increase the risks
  190. 190the foundations of classical criminology stemmed from Cessare Beccaria, who introduced the idea that humans are rational actors who weigh costs and benefits. People will accept a punishment system that is just enough to secure their safety, but govts shouldn't go overboard. This was revolutionary thinking at the time.Modern law is now VERY gradated.
  191. 191IN EXAM Beccaria's arguments: 1. law should be ___ in scope and ___ __ 2. Punishment should be ____ , i.e. fit the crime 3. Seriousness should be measured by ____ ___ ___ __ 4. punishment should be ____ (cerainty) and _____ (celerity) 5. Presumption of _____ 6. Punishment should be used as _____limited, written down
    proportional
    harm inflicted on society
    certain, swift
    innocence
    detterence
  192. 192there are two kinds of deterrence: specific detterence and general detterence. describe each onespecific: focussed on the individual, e.g. arresting, charging, sentencing. aims to stop individual doing crime again, and gives an understanding on the consequences
    general: not focussed on an individual, e.g. police patrolling the streets, RBTs, public courts. aims to make an example out of offencers
  193. 193why is there a modern emphasis on deterrenceit prevents crime before it occurs through the threat of punishment
    it tips the scales on a risk-balance analysis by offenders
    NOTE: necessary ingredients are the cetainty of punishment, celerity of punishment and severity of punishment
  194. 194there are three different ways to testing if detterence works:1. assess policies and procedures that target specific crimes
    2. measure individual perceptions - are people really deterred?
    3. examine the comparative deterrent effect across juristictions
  195. 195one of the ways to test if deterrence works is to assess policies and procedures that target specific crime, for instance, policing strategies that reduce drink driving, gun usage etc. What were the findings related to this?there's an initial detterence (drop in crime), and a residual deterrence where it takes a while for people to see the area as 'safe' again. Then there is a decay once people realise they have overestimated the certainty of getting caught
  196. 196one of the ways to test if deterrence works is to measure individual perceptions and understand if people really deterred, e..g through surveys What were the findings related to this?That the percieved risk of sanction reduces offending
    certainty is more important than celerity and severity
    extra-legal sanctions (job loss) are motivating factors
    prior experience in the CJS is important
  197. 197one of the ways to test if deterrence works is to examine the comparative detterent effects across juristictions, to see if more police equals less crime. What were the findings related to this?Opposite findings. More police = more crime, though this is likely due to an increased capacity to detect the dark figure of crime.
    also, states with the death penalty have higher levels of murder, possibly due to a brutalisation effect
  198. 198deterrence: what do we know from the research? certainty has a greater impact on determining crime levels percieved risk may be more important than objective risk juristicial comparison results unsatisfyingl
  199. 199briefly describe Ron Clarke and Derek Cornish's Rational Choice theoryassimes that individuals make rational choices, based on maximising pleasure or profit. They heirarchically organise preferneces, and decisions are based on the costs, best ways to maximise benefits and other options available
    WE MUST UNDERSTAND THE PUSPOSES OF THE OFFENDER
  200. 200what are the differences between rational choice theory and detterence theory?RC focusses on the crime (and your perception of a crime opportunity) but deterrence focusses on the criminal (assuming that you make the same decisions all the time)
    'costs' in rational chocie refers to effort, not consequences
    RC focusses on changing situations so that costs are higher

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