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Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Cards

rodriguesj2 English 114 cards

Cards in this deck (114)

  1. 1Plasma MembranePair of dark parallel lines around the cell,
    defines cell boundaries,
    controls interactions with other cells,
    controls passage of materials in and out of the cell
  2. 2Plasma Membrane AnatomyProtein-Lipid-Lipid-Protein Layer,
    Embedded Proteins
  3. 3Membrane protein functionsReceptors- Cell Communication, chemical signals, hormones, neurotransmitters
    Enzymes- Carb and protein digestion in small intestine
    Channel Proteins (gates) - Respond to stimuli, nerve signal and muscle contaction
    Cell- Identity markers - identity tags (self v.s. non-self)
  4. 4NucleoplasmNucleus,
    Nucleolus,
    Nuclear Membrane,
    Chromosomes
  5. 5CytoplasmMitochondria,
    Endoplasmic Reticulum,
    Ribosomes,
    Golgi Complex,
    Lysosomes,
    Vacuoles,
    Cytoskeleton
  6. 6MitochondriaDouble unit membrane: inner membrane folds called cristae (ATP synthesized by enzymes on cristae from energy extracted from organic compounds)
    Space between cristae called matrix: contains ribosomes and small circular DNA molecule (mtDNA)
  7. 7Rough Endoplasmic ReticulumParallel, flattened membranous sacs covered with ribosomes
    Continuous with nuclear envelope and smooth ER
    Synthesis of packaged proteins (digestive glands) and proteins of plasma membrane
  8. 8Smooth Endoplasmic ReticulumLack Ribosomes
    Cisternae more tubular and branching,
    Synthesis of membranes, steroids (ovary and testes) and lipids, detoxification (liver and kidney), and calcium storage (skeletal and cardiac muscle)
  9. 9RibosomesGranules of protein and RNA: found in nucleoli, free in cytosol and on rough ER
    Uses directions in messenger RNA to assemble amino acids into proteins specified by the genetic code (DNA)
  10. 10Golgi Complex-System of flattened sacs (cisternae)
    -Synthesized carbs, packages proteins and glycoproteins
    -Forms vesicles: lysosomes, secretory vesicles, new plasma membrane
  11. 11Lysosomes-Package of enzymes in a single unit membrane, variable in shape
    -Function: intracellular digestion of large molecules, autophagy (digestion of worn out organelles), autolysis (programmed cell death), breakdown stored glycogen in liver to release glucose
  12. 12CytoskeletonCollection of filaments and tubules that provide support, organization and movement
    Composed of: *microfilaments = actin
    -form network on cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane called membrane skeleton (supports phospholipids and microvilli and produces cell movement)
    *Intermediate fibers
    -help hold epithelial cells together, resist stresses on cells, lines nuclear envelope, toughens hair and nails
    *microtubles
  13. 13Microtubules-Cylinder of 13 parallel stands called protofilaments (a long chain of globular protein called tubulin)
    -holds organelles in place, maintains cell shape, guide organelles inside cell
    -form axonemes of cilia and flagella, centrioles, basal bodies, and mitotic spindle
  14. 14NucleousLargest organelle
    Nuclear envelope: 2 unit membranes held together at nuclear pores
    Nucleoplasm: Chromatin (thread-like matter) = DNA and protein, Nucleoli = dark masses where ribosomes are produced
  15. 15Nucleic AcidsDNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): contains genetic codes for cell division, sexual reproduction, the instructions for protein synthesis
    RNA (ribonucleic acid): carries out instructions given by DNA, synthesizes the proteins coded for by DNA
  16. 16MitosisProphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
  17. 17G1 PhaseThe first gap phase,
    normal cellular functions,
    begins to replicate centrioles
  18. 18S phaseSynthesis phase,
    DNA replication
  19. 19G2 phaseSecond gap phase,
    preparation for mitosis,
    replicates centrioles, synthesizes enzymes for cell division
  20. 20M phaseMitotic phase,
    nuclear and cytoplasmic division
  21. 21Mitosis (Explained)-Process by which one cell divides into 2 daughter cells with identical copies of DNA
    -Functions: embryonic development, tissue growth, replacement of old and death cells, repair of injured tissues
  22. 22Cytokinesis-Division of cytoplasm and overlaps telophase
    -Myosin pulls on microfilaments of actin in the membrane skeleton
    -Causes crease around cell equator called cleavage furrow
    -Cell pinches in two
    -Interphase has begun
  23. 23Simple DiffusionThe movement of particles as result of their constant, random motion
  24. 24Net DiffusionThe movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration
  25. 25Diffusion RatesFactors that affect rate of diffusion through a membrane:
    temperature
    molecular weight
    steepness of concentration gradient
    membrane surface area
    membrane permeability
  26. 26Osmotic PressureAmount of hydrostatic pressure required to stop osmosis
  27. 27Steps of GlycolysisStep 1: Phosphorylation (ATP used)
    Step 2: Fructose-6-phosphate
    Step 3: Fructose 1, 6 phosphate (ATP used)
    Step 4: Cleavage
    Step 5: PGAL to diPGA
    Step 6: dip to PGA (2 ATP produced, 4 ATP for a net gain of 2 ATP)
  28. 28Anaerobic Fermentation-Fate of pyretic acid depends on whether or not oxygen is available
    -In exercising muscle, demand for ATP>oxygen supply so ATP is produced in glycolysis
  29. 29Krebs Citric Acid Cycle2 ATP Produced
  30. 30Electron Transport System32 ATP produced
  31. 31Protein Synthesis take place where?Ribosome through RNA
  32. 323 Types of RNAMessenger RNA (transcribes message from DNA)
    Transfer RNA (goes out and gets amino acid from cytoplasm)
    Ribosomal RNA ( rRNA is found in the cytoplasm of cells and is associated with ribosomes. rRNA takes the coded information delivered from the nucleus by mRNA and translates it so that proteins can be produced and modified)
  33. 33outer most layer of the skinepidermis
  34. 342 layers of epidermisStratum Corneum and Stratum Basale (reproduced by mitosis)
  35. 35dermisbelow epidermis
  36. 36osteoblastsbone building cells
  37. 37osteocytesmature bone cells
  38. 38osteoclastsbone destroying cells
  39. 39process of ossificationeither bone takes over existing membranes or bone with replace cartilage (endochondral ossification)
  40. 40epiphyseal plate/lineline that forms once bone length is at maximum
  41. 41Muscle Contraction ProcessSliding filament theory, thick and thin filaments slide over one another and calcium ions are the key (this is controlled by cell membrane function)
  42. 42Neuromuscular Junctionregion where a nerve fiber makes a functional connection with its target cell (NMJ)
    Neurotransmitter (acetylcholine/ACh) released from nerve fiber causes stimulation of muscle cell
    Components of synapse
    synaptic knob is swollen end of nerve fiber (contains ACh)
    motor end plate is specialized region of muscle cell surface
    has ACh receptors on junctional folds which bind ACh released from nerve
    acetylcholinesterase is enzyme that breaks down ACh & causes relaxation
    synaptic cleft = tiny gap between nerve and muscle cells
  43. 43Red and White Fibers Isotonic VS Isometric ContractionsIsometric Muscle Contraction (Develops tension without changing length)
    Isotonic Muscle Contraction(Tension development while shortening = concentric
    Tension development while lengthening = eccentric)
  44. 44tentnisimpulses are coming in so rapidly that there is no relaxation phase and increases tension
  45. 45Overview of Nervous System*Maintain homeostasis
    *Provide vast network of communication
    *Excitable (irritable) cells
    *Highly developed properties in neurons
    -excitability (response to stimuli)
    -impulse (as a result of stimuli)
    -conductivity (ability to transmit the impulse)
  46. 46Subdivisions of the Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System: brain, spinal cord, and is enclosed in bony coverings
    Peripheral Nervous System: all nerves outside of the CNS, sensory receptors and organs
  47. 47Functional Divisions of PNS*sensory (afferent) divisions (receptors to CNS): autonomic and somatic
    *motor (efferent) division (CNS to effectors): -autonomic (effectors = cardiac, smooth muscle, glands), sympathetic (action) and parasympathetic (digestion)
    -somatic (effectors = skeletal system)
  48. 48Cells of the Nervous SystemNeurons- cells that conduct and transmit impulses
    Neuroglial- cells that do not conduct and transmit impulses (support, protection and insulation)
  49. 49Neuroglial Cells-outnumber neurons 5:1
    -Most numerous in CNS
    -Astrocytes - transport nutrients (in cns, respond to injury)
    -Oligodendrites - (Schwann cell- myelin)
    -Microglia - (phagocytosis - cellular defense)
  50. 50Oligodendrocytes-form myelin sheaths in CNS, each wraps processes around many nerve fibers
  51. 51Astrocytes-contribute to Blood-Brain Barrier and regulate compositions of brain tissue fluid
    -most abundant glial cells, form framework of CNS
    -sclerosis (damaged neurons replace by hardened mass of astrocytes)
  52. 52Ependymal Cellsline cavities, produce cerebrospinal fluid
  53. 53Microglia (macrophages)-formed from monocytes
    -concentrate in areas of infection, trauma, or stroke
  54. 54Schwann Cellsmyelinate fibers of PNS
  55. 55Myelin Sheath*Insulating layer around a nerve fiber
    -oligodendrpcytes in CNS and Schwann cells in PNS
    -formed from wrappings of plasma membrane (20% protein, 80% lipid)
    *in ONS, hundreds of layers wrap up axon
    -the outermost coil is schwann cell (neurilemma)
    -covered by basement membrane and endoneurium
  56. 56Structure of Neuron*Cell Body (Soma) = single, central nucleus with large nucleolus
    *Vast number of short dendrites = for receiving signals
    *Single axon (nerve fiber) arising from axon hillock for rapid conduction (axoplasm & axolemma & synaptic vesicles)
    *Myelin sheath (a protective covering on some neurons) (insulator, efficient conduction)
    *Neurilemma (PNS) (outermost covering) (must be present for neuron repair)
  57. 57Excitability (Irritability) in Neuronsability to respond to changes in the body and external environment called stimuli
  58. 58ConductivityProduce traveling electrical signals
  59. 59Secretion in Neuronswhen electrical signal reaches end of nerve fiber and chemical neurotransmitter is secreted
  60. 60Characteristics*Neurons respond to various stimuli (light, heat, pressure)
    *All stimuli must be strong enough to illicit a response
    *Threshold level stimulus results in action potential (follows "all-or-none" rule, subliminal stimuli will not illicit response)
    *Living cells are polarized
    *Action potential is created when cell is depolarized
  61. 61Resting Membrane Potential*Unequal electrolytes distribution between ECF/ICF (diffusion of ions down their concentration gradients, selective permeability or plasma membrane, electrical attraction of cations and anions)
    *Explanation for -70 mV resting potential
    -membrane very permeable to K+ (leaks out until electrical gradient created attracts it back in)
    -cytoplasmic anions can not escape due to size or charge
    -membrane is much less permeable to Na+
    +++requires great deal of ATP+++
  62. 62Electrically Excitable Cells (muscle and nerve)*Plasma membrane is polarized or charged -resting membrane potential is due to Na+ outside of cell and K+ and other anions inside of cell
    -difference in charge across the membrane is potential
  63. 63Action Potentials*a dramatic change in membrane produced where high density of voltage-gated channels occur
    *If threshold potential (-55mV) reached voltage-gated Na+ channels open
    *called a spike
  64. 64Characteristics of Action Potential-follows an all-or-none law
    -nondecremental (do not get weaker with distance)
    -Irreversible (once started goes to completion and can not be stopped)
  65. 65The Refractory Period-Period of resistance to stimulation
    -Refractory period is occurring only to a small patch of membrane at one time (quickly recovers)
  66. 66Electrical Potentials & Currents-Nerve pathway is not a continuous "wire" but a series of separate cells
    -Neuronal communication is based on mechanisms for producing electrical potentials and currents
  67. 67Electrical Potentialdifference in concentration of charged particles between different parts of the cell
  68. 68Electrical Currentflow of charged particles from one point to another within the cell
  69. 69Synapses between Two Neurons*First neuron in path releases neurotransmitters onto second neuron that responds to it (1st neuron is presynaptic neuron, 2nd neuron is postsynaptic neuron)
  70. 70Neuromuscular Junctions (Synapse)-region where a nerve fiber makes a functions connection with its target cell
    -Synaptic cleft = tiny gap between nerve and muscle cells
  71. 71Acetylcholine Function-causing a change in plasma membrane
    -by opening voltage regulated gates, it increases permeability of sodium ions
    -entire muscle cell depolarized
  72. 72Synapse Mechanisms-Critical area between axon and dendrite (or any other receiving structure)
  73. 73Synapse Fatigue-defined as a decrease in the discharging of nerves
    rapid repeat use of a synapse uses up transmitter substance faster that it can be replaced
  74. 74Synapse Interference-Stimulants (increase heart rate, breathing rate, and brain function)
  75. 755 regions of the brain-Telencephalon (cerebrum)
    -Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)
    -Mesencephalon (midbrain)
    -Metencephelon (cerebellum and pons)
    -Mylencehelon (medulla oblongata)
  76. 76Meninges-Dura mater (outermost, tough membrane)
    -Arachnoid mater is spider web filaments layer
    -Pia mater (thin vascular adherent to contours of brain)
  77. 77Cerebrospinal Fluid-clear fluid fills ventricles and canals and bathes its external surface (in subarachnoid space)
    Functions: buoyancy, protection, chemical stability
  78. 78BBBthe specialized system of capillary endothelial cells that protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood stream
  79. 79Meningitis-inflammation of the meninges
    -bacterial and virus invasion of the CNS by way of the nose and throat
  80. 80Telencephalon Function-storage of info, higher mental functions, memory, consciousness, initiation of voluntary muscle movement
    -emotion, personality, intelligence
  81. 81Lobes of the TelencephalonOccipital- vision
    Temporal- hearing, time, and individuality
    Parietal- integration of all sensory receptors
    Frontal- largest, higher order thinking, purposeful behavior, planning and decision making
  82. 82Basal Nuclei-set of nuclei deep within the white matter
    -includes caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus (globes pallidus, putamen)
  83. 83Thalamus-sensory relay station where sensory signals can be edited, sorted and routed
  84. 84Epithalamus-above the thalamus and contains the pineal gland (contains melatonin)
  85. 85Choroid Plexusstructure that secrets cerebral spinal fluid
  86. 86Hypothalamus FunctionAutonomis regulatory center, emotional response, regulation of body temp, regulation of food intake and water balance/thirst, regulation of sleep/wake cycles, hormonal control
  87. 87Limbic Systeminteracts with the prefrontal lobes, forming a connection between feelings
  88. 88Amygdaladeals with anger, danger, and fear responses
  89. 89Cingulate GyrusPlays a role in expressing emotions via gestures and resolves mental conflict
  90. 90Limbic System Functionsolfactory, memory, emotions and drives, homeostatic functions including autonomic and endocrine control
  91. 91Hippocampusconverts short term into long term memory
  92. 92Cerebellum2nd largest region in brain
    functions: -adjusting the postural muscles of the body by coordinating rapid, automatic adjustments, that maintain balance and equilibrium
    -programming and fine-tuning movements controlled as the subconscious and conscious levels
  93. 93Medulla Oblongata Function-controls autonomic functions (breathing + heart rate)
    -relays nerve messages from the brain to the spinal cord
    -Processing of inter-aural differences for sound localization
    -function control of sneeze, cough, swallow, suck, vomiting
  94. 94Autonomic Nervous System-motor nervous system that controls glands, cardiac, and smooth muscle (visceral mother system)
    -maintains homeostasis (blood pressure, body temp, respiratory airflow)
  95. 95Parasympathetic division of ANShas calming affects on many body functions and assists in bodily maintenance (digestion and waste elimination)
  96. 96Respiratory System-ventilation of lungs, exchange of gases between air&blood and blood&tissue
    -maintain acid-base balance
  97. 97General aspects of respiratory system-provides large surface area for gas exchange
    -conducting division (nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi)
    respiratory division: alveoli and distal gas-exchange regions
  98. 98Pulmonary Ventilation-Inspiration (30% remains in conducting zone)
    ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE DRIVES RESPIRATION (1 atmosphere= 760 mmHg)
    INTRAPULMONARY PRESSURE AND LUNG VOLUME (for given amount of gas, as volume increases, pressure decreases
  99. 99Pressure gradientsdifference between atmospheric and intrapulmonary pressure, created by changes in volume and thoracic cavity
  100. 100Intrapleural Pressureas volume of thoracic cavity increases, visceral pleura clings to parietal pleura
  101. 101intrapulmonary pressurelungs expand with the visceral pleura
  102. 102Passive Expiration-during quiet breathing, expiration achieved by elasticity of lungs and thoracic cage
    -as volume of thoracic cavity decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases and air is expelled
  103. 103Forced Expiration (cough)-internal intercostal muscles (depress the ribs)
    -Contract abdominal muscles (increase intra-abdominal pressure forces diaphragm upward, increasing pressure on thoracic cavity
  104. 104pneumothoraxpresence of air in pleural cavity
  105. 105atelectasiscollapse lung
  106. 106Alveolithin-walled sacs surrounded by capillary network
    -high surface tension
  107. 107Oxygen TransportConcentration in arterial blood (98.5% = hemoglobin, 1.5% in plasma)
  108. 108Carbon dioxide transportCarbonic acid- 70%
    Carbaminohemoglobin- 23%
    Dissolved gas- 7%
  109. 109hypo and hyperventilationhypo- decrease blood pH (respiratory acidosis)
    hyper- increase blood pH (respiratory alkalosis)
  110. 110Peripheral chemoreceptorsaortic bodies (signals medulla by vagus nerves)
    carotid bodies (signals medulla by glossopharyngeal nerves)
  111. 111Cerebral CortexMotor cortex of frontal lobe of cerebrum sends impulses to respiratory neurons in spinal cord, bypassing brain stem
  112. 112respiratory volumeTidal: air inhaled or exhaled in one quiet breath
    inspiratory reserve: air in excess of tidal inspiration that can be inhaled with max effort
    expiratory reserve: air in excess of tidal expiration that can be exhales with maximum effort
    residual: air remaining in lungs after max expiration, keeps alveoli inflated
  113. 113Vital Capacityamount of air that can be exhaled with max effort after max inspiration
  114. 114inspiratory capacitymax amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal tidal expiration

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Flashcards on Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Cards, created by rodriguesj2 on 11/12/2014.
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