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Flashcards

Fanny Adrian CP 8

Adrian Mayer English 33 cards

Cards in this deck (33)

  1. 11. Explain how the characteristics of the memory network can cause errors in episodic memory.Connections between nodes are often established on the basis of several related experiences, for example repeated trips to the beach. The connections serve as retrieval paths for the recall of a specific episodic memory, as initially the connections linking the various aspects within each episodic memory are more numerous or stronger than those linking events to each other, so that individual events can be properly distinguished from each other. Over time, however, connections between aspects of different episodes may develop, in which case these episodes are progressively knitted together or merged, and it becomes difficult to accurately recall which specific bits of information, or aspects, were contained within which episode. This may result in “transplant” errors, in which aspects of one episode (e.g., a specific trip to the beach) are transplanted into other similar episodes (other trips to the beach).
  2. 22. Give one example each for how the associations between memories can be either 'helping' or ‘hurting' memory accuracy, and explain the role that associations play in each case.An example of helpful associations between memories could be the organization of items of a grocery shopping list according to their placement in the supermarket. The associations of groceries with locations organizes all individual items into a logical order, and it is easier to recall items as steps in an overall sequence.
    An example of hurting associations could be the experiment in which a list of different words related to 'sleep' had to be memorized (the DRM procedure). The common theme 'sleep' facilitated the learning and recall of the words, but also resulted in people incorrectly remembering that the word ‘sleep’ was in the studied list.
  3. 33. Describe what effect warnings have on the performance of participants in the DRM procedure.Even warnings about memory errors and how these are induced by the DRM procedure do not prevent participants from making DRM errors (e.g., erroneously remembering ‘sleep’ as being contained in a studied list of words that were all strongly related to sleep).
  4. 44. Describe one piece of empirical evidence that supports the concept of schematic knowledge.Structural errors that tend to normalize or regularize irregularities support the existence of schematic knowledge. One example of these errors is the tendency of leaving out those details in the recall of an episode that are irregular or unexplainable, while changing some aspects of the story towards more familiar, frequently encountered ones. For example, participants who were asked to recall the interior of a professor's office that they had briefly inspected, incorrectly recalled the presence of books on shelves, because the presence of such items is included in their schematic knowledge of a typical professor's office.
  5. 55. Explain how the question "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other" can cause imagination inflation.magination inflation describes the effect of interpretation triggered by suggestive (i.e. leading) information in a question about one’s memory. The phrase 'smashed into each other' suggests a big crash and therefore implies high speed of the cars. Another phrase, such as 'hit each other' would usually be associated with less dramatic scenes and is therefore interpreted as involving less speed. Thus, the phrasing of questions about memories can enhance the impact of imagination on the accuracy, or lack thereof, of recall.
  6. 66. The book extensively discusses memory errors. Can we in generally trust our memories? Shortly argue why or why not.Even though memory errors are more common than most people expect, our memories are generally accurate. Many memory errors are caused by people using general knowledge (schemata, scripts) to interpret, store, and subsequently recall new information. Such usage tends to regularize what is encoded and retrieved. However, recalling more regularity than actually present is not harmful in the majority of cases, because regular events are, by definition, what happens most of the time. Therefore, automatically altering unusual details towards normality usually does not cause major problems.
  7. 77. Is confidence in the accuracy of one's own recall correlated to the actual accuracy of the memory? If so, describe the nature of this relationship.Research has found little relationship between memory confidence and memory accuracy.
  8. 88.8 State which of the following three statements is true and explain whether the distinction between remembering and knowing can serve as a reliable means of distinguishing correct memories from false ones. A) The feeling of 'remembering' is more likely with correct than with false memories B) The feeling of 'remembering' is equally likely with correct and false memories C) The feeling of 'remembering' is more likely with false than with correct memoriesStatement A) is true. Often, false memories are associated with only a general sense of familiarity and no recollection of the actual episode.
    However, this pattern is rather weak and not reliable, and even correct memories can be accompanied by only a feeling of knowing, while false memories can arrive with a detailed sense of remembering. Therefore, the sense of actually and fully remembering cannot reliable distinguish correct memories from false ones and other means, such as response speed, are used instead.
  9. 98.9 Name the three mechanisms that can lead to forgetting.Decay, interference and retrieval failures can cause forgetting.
  10. 1010. State, what the "Ebbinghaus ……. curve" shows and complete the name.The full name of the curve is "Ebbinghaus forgetting curve" . It shows the exponential decrease of successful retention as a function of the duration of the retention interval.
  11. 1111. Describe the tip of the tongue phenomenon.The tip of the tongue phenomenon describes the feeling of being extremely close to recalling some particular information but being unable to come up with it. People can often even name the starting letter and how the word approximately sounds like.
  12. 1212. Which factor contributes more to forgetting than passage of time, according to Baddeley and Hitch?According to Baddeley and Hitch, the number of interfering events during retention determines forgetting, rather than the mere passage of time (as decay theories of forgetting would predict).
  13. 1313. In order to 'undo' forgetting, hypnosis is one technique that is used. Describe what hypnosis can achieve in terms of recollections.Hypnosis cannot improve memory. However, people under hypnosis usually are willing to report more and more detailed about events, using a mix of recollection, guesses and inferences.
  14. 1414. In one study, adult participants were asked to draw a picture while mentally "regressed" to age 6 by means of hypnosis. Describe what the pictures they drew looked like.The pictures that the adults drew when mentally "regressed" to age 6 looked very childlike. However, they rather represent adult's conception of what children's pictures look like, because the adults' drawings were more sophisticated than pictures of real children at age 6
  15. 1515. What is hyperthymesia?Hyperthymesia is the term for superior autobiographical memory -- an ability to remember virtually every episode, every day, of one's life with great accuracy.
  16. 1616. State the characteristics of the cognitive interview used in police work.The cognitive interview is aimed at maximising the quantity and accuracy of information obtained from eyewitnesses, emphasizes context reinstatement and provides a diverse set of retrieval cues.
  17. 17!!!17. Discuss whether memory integration and cross-referencing is overall advantageous or disadvantageous. !!!Memory integration and cross-referencing has some drawbacks. For example, it is difficult to remember a certain single episode of meeting a good friend, because the multiple meetings with this particular friend are integrated and cross-referenced in memory. Thus, some minor abnormality or unique feature of a specific episode is easily forgotten. For example, this friend might always order a chocolate cookie with his coffee, but because this time the café was out of cookies he did not eat one. This is an unusual detail but it might be easily forgotten because it was not meaningful for the overall episode. The advantage of memory integration and cross-referencing is that all knowledge and experiences related to this friend is united and therefore multiple episodes build upon each other and enrich the memory about
  18. 1818. Which three factors are central to autobiographic memory?Involvement in the remembered event, emotional significance, and long delay.
  19. 1919. Why does involvement in an event lead to better memory?Involvement in an event implies that the event is relevant to you and who you are. As information relevant to the self is better remembered (the self-reference effect), this event is remembered more easily than other events that do not include self-involvement.
  20. 2020. Name the two characteristics of self-serving biases in recollection of one's own past.People tend to reconstruct their own past as more consistent and more positive than it actually was.
  21. 2121. Describe the general effect that emotions have on memory.Emotions mainly promote the process of memory consolidation.
  22. 2222. State the two hypotheses that describe the role of emotion in relation to attention and the consequent memory of an emotional event.One proposal is that emotion leads to a narrower attentional focus in an emotional event. Therefore, the event would be remembered well, but only a small fraction of the episode is remembered. A second proposal is that emotional events tend to set goals, which promote memory of those aspects of an event that are relevant to that goal.
  23. 2323. How do “flashbulb memories” compare to other emotional or non-emotional episodic memories?Flashbulb memories are very vivid and long-lasting memories related to important and highly emotional events, such as the assassination of President John F. Kennedy or the attack on the World Trade Center in 2001, in which people can recall many details regarding the circumstances in which they first heard about the event. The vividness of flashbulb memories led to the idea that such memories were somehow “burnt into the brain” and thus always reliable. Modern research has found however that, just like any other type of episodic memory, flashbulb memories can contain substantial errors and their accuracy is largely unrelated to their vividness or a person’s confidence in their accuracy.
  24. 2424. Describe in what ways schemata are helpful in memory encoding and retrieval.Finding oneself in a certain setting (e.g. a restaurant), schemata help to regard specific incidents as normal for that setting, for instance a waiter asking “How is everything?”.
    Furthermore, schemata also facilitate the recall of how an event unfolded. Gaps in memory are filled with the help of the schema, thereby adding a plausible reconstruction to the actual memory (e.g. assuming that one got handed menus in the restaurant even though one does not have a memory of seeing the menus). Mostly, this after-the-fact reconstruction will be correct since schemata, by definition, describe what regularly occurs.
  25. 258.25 Describe the kind of errors Bartlett’s British participants made in the recall of a story from Native American folklore.Participants’ effort to fit the story into a schematic frame, produced a systematic pattern of errors:
    Participants’ recall contained elements of the story which were compatible with their schema, but left out or distorted elements which were incompatible with it. Hence, the story was “regularized” by the participants.
  26. 2626. Novelist Julian Barnes wrote: “History is that certainty produced at the point where the imperfections of memory meet the inadequacies of documentation.”. Discuss whether it is justified to call memory errors “imperfections of memory”.Memory errors seem to weigh heaviest when one considers eyewitness errors. These errors have far-reaching consequences, sometimes resulting in convicting innocent persons, thereby indeed supporting the notion of “imperfections of memory”.
    However, when one construes memory’s function as predicting the future instead of remembering the past, the so called “imperfections” become side-effects of a system which is in general advantageous. Since our environment is mostly predictable, the reliance on schemata helps to differentiate what is self-evident and what is informative (e.g. there is little use in scrutinizing a professor’s office), thereby facilitating to navigate our environment effortlessly.
    Thus, our perspective matters, but since memory’s primary function is to predict the future instead of remembering the past, it is not entirely justified to call memory errors “imperfections”.
  27. 278.27 What factors increase the likelihood of planting false memories successfully?Planting plausible false memories rather than implausible ones is easier. Additionally, it is also easier to plant false memories when research participants imagine, rather than just hear, the false event (imagination inflation is sometimes supported by real evidence with false suggestions or by fake evidence).
  28. 288.28 Explain why memory accuracy and memory confidence do not correlate with each other.Memory accuracy and memory confidence do not correlate with each other since confidence is contingent upon factors (such as feedback)which have no impact on accuracy.
  29. 2929. What does the tip of the tongue phenomenon illustrate?The TOT illustrates a partial retrieval failure: some aspects of the desired content are recalled, but not all.
  30. 308.30 Apart from memory consolidation, what other mechanisms contribute to remembering emotional events relatively well?Emotional events are of significance for the person experiencing them, therefore persons pay usually close attention to such events which in turn helps to remember them. Additionally, the tendency to ponder about emotional events after they have occurred can be regarded as memory rehearsal.
  31. 3131. Name some of the reasons for memory researchers’ skepticism concerning repression.First, painful events are usually well remembered, contradicting the hypothesis that these memories should be repressed to protect oneself.
    Second, some reports of “recovered” memories do not exclusively lend support to the concept of repression. An alternative explanation is that persons simply refused to discuss these memories for many years. Another explanation is that the inability to recall certain memories reflects a retrieval failure instead of repression.
    Third, some of the “recovered” memories may be false memories, encouraged by a therapist’s expectations.
  32. 328.32 Most people have few memories of their early childhood, but remember late adolescence and early adulthood relatively well. How are these two observations called?Childhood amnesia and reminiscence bump
  33. 33!!! 1; 8,34!!!!!! 1; 8,34!!!

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Flashcards on Fanny Adrian CP 8, created by Adrian Mayer on 25/10/2019.
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