Flashcards
Managing People
Cards in this deck (66)
- 1Describe Theory XHaving little ambition
Disliking work
Avoidning responsibility - 2Describe Theory YSelf-directed
Enyoying work
Accepting responsibility - 3Describe instrumental valuesAre core standards of conduct or methods for achievieng our objectives e.g. preferred behaviors such as honestly, sincerity. Difficult to change.
- 4Describe terminal valuesCan be personal or social. Organisations can change their terminal values.
- 5Which are the 4 components of successful decision makingDecision framing
Information gathering
Coming to conclusions
Learning from experience - 6Effective managersUnderstand the different sources of motivation and how to apply relevant techniques
Build the self-efficacy of themselves and others
Recognise the major perceptual biases and know how to avoid them
Strive to become a learning person - 7A FOUR FRAME APPROACH TO UNDERSTANDING ORGANISATIONSStructural, human resource, political, symbolic
- 81. StructuralViews organisations as machines
Assumes problems arise from organisation’s strategy, structure, technology and processes
Implies that managers should seek to rectify problems through formal initiatives (e.g., establishing new organisational structures, roles, policies and reward systems) - 92. Human resourceViews organisations as families
Emphasises how organisational success or failure reflects human needs, feelings, prejudices, skills and limitations
Presumes that managers should seek to tailor organisations so that they empower staff to feel good about performing their roles effectively - 103. PoliticalViews organisations as a jungle in which different interests compete for power and scarce resources
Assumes problems arise when power is concentrated in the wrong places or is so broadly dispersed that nothing gets done
Implies that managers should develop the political skill to build their power and use it effectively - 114. SymbolicViews organisations as a theatre, carnival, or temple driven more by rituals, stories and myths than by rules, policies and structures
Implies that problems arise from people playing their parts badly after symbols lose their meaning or rituals lose their potency
managers should seek to energise their organisations by inspiring staff through stories, symbols, rituals, myths etc - 12Client-centered diagnosisClients are involved in as many phases of the research as feasible. This can often lead to greater acceptance of findings and therefore to a greater acceptance of the change process as a whole. Participation also can enhance the capacity of organisations to evaluate their own performance,
- 13Diagnostic InterviewsMost common form of data collection.
The number and design of the interviews will depend on many factors such as the size of the organization and your diagnostic brief.
If there appears to be consensus in the organisation about the main problems, then you may not need to conduct many interviews.
If the main problems are not obvious, then you may need to conduct a number of rounds of interviews.
Advantage of interviews – you can explore answers in detail by asking the interviewee to elaborate on them and by testing ideas.
Group interviews sometimes used to observe interactions between group members. However, one danger is that you come away with a mistaken idea of consensus because group members are unwilling to discuss dissension opinions.
Like observation, interviews can be a flexible and adaptable process that can throw light on unexpected relationships, influences, etc. - 14SurveysEfficient way of collecting data.
“Take the temperature” of an organisation and to reveal areas of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Designing a survey often requires specialist assistance.
Length of survey (keep under 15 minutes)
Reliability and validity of scales used
Types of questions asked and why
Advantage of this form of data collection is that having large numbers of respondents increases the reliability of findings. The trade off is a loss of qualitative “rich” data.
Survey feedback is a particular intervention method where the results are “fed back” to all those who participated in the survey. This can help to stimulate awareness of the need for change and help develop consensus about priority areas for change. - 15SWOT analysisTool used to help define an organisation’s strategy against a stated intent.
By identifying the organisation’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats the current position of the organisation is clarified and future strategic directions are identified.
Identifying strengths and weaknesses is internally focused while identifying threats and opportunities is externally focused - 16How can the information from a SWOT analysis be used?Change issue identification
Solution generation / prescribing: you could ask
Which of our strengths could we use to solve this problem?
Improving on which of our weaknesses might solve this problem?
If we capitalise on our opportunities would be the problem be solved?
Solution evaluation: if you have already clearly defined your issue and generated some solutions, your list of strengths and weaknesses can also be used to evaluate and prioritise these solutions - 17Value Chain AnalysisThis is a way of understanding the different activities of the organisation and how they fit together. A value chain helps us assess the value added by each activity and identify where improvements can be made. Therefore, it helps us diagnose the current state of the organisation in preparation for identifying change issues and initiatives.
There are two parts to a value chain – primary activities and support activities. The primary activities chain represents the sequential stages of a system while the support activities are those that allow the primary activities to take place and improve organisational effectiveness. - 185WsThe 5Ws approach provides a structure for clarifying the situation or problem through repeated questioning. The underlying assumption is that all problems can be defined in terms of simple attributes (the What?), location in space (the Where?), and time (the When?), and people who are affected (the Who?) The fifth W is Why? This final question can serve two purposes:
Can be used to gain some insight into the goals of the change program. For example, why do we want to improve employee satisfaction?
The second use of the Why question requires a shift from description of the issue to a focus on what the underlying causes of the problem/issue, or contributing factors are. - 19Fishbone AnalysisFishbone analysis has many advantages over other recording methods. They produce a compact, readily understood representation of the generated ideas and they automatically structure responses in broad categories. Once the diagram is complete it provides a basis for analysing categories of ideas.
- 20Using the team in problem solvingFor the team to be effective, it has to address the right issues and solve the right problems. The first step in doing this is appropriately identifying the root causes of problems (discussed last week).
The second step is to identify the right solution to the problem.
One common mistake is to use a pre-determined or off-the-shelf solution. It is tempting to use a solution that has worked in another organisation or that is easy to use but that may not address the actual problem. - 21Mention the stages in problem solving1. Problem Definition
2. Solution Generation
3. Solution Evaluation
4. Implementation - 22Solution Generation – divergent thinkingWe want to generate lots of different options for a change intervention. Why? Because research shows that the more ideas you generate, the higher the quality of the best ideas (Taylor, 1984). That is, by producing more ideas you are likely to produce some outliers that are fantastic rather than just the two or three obvious choices. You also are more likely to produce more ideas at the other end of the spectrum but you can easily drop these in the evaluation stage.
Divergent thinking comes with costs:
Time
Energy
Complexity
of the decision process - 23Three solution generating techniques1. How-How
2. Brainstorming
3. 6 Hats - 24Who came up with the 6 Hats?Edward de Bono (1971)
- 25Describe the 6 hatsGreen: Possibilities
Black: Reality
Red: Feelings
White: Information
Yellow: Positive/Benefits
Blue: Thinking - 26Two types of ideas screening1. The first uses a voting procedure to narrow down ideas
2. The second uses a graphical means of narrowing down options - 27Decision MatrixStep 1. Decide on the detailed criteria to be used in evaluating ideas remaining after the initial screening. Include as many criteria as you feel are important.
Step 2.List the criteria on the left-hand side of the matrix.
Step 3. List the ideas across the top of the matrix.
Step 4. Working across the columns, assign each idea a score out of 10 for each criterion.
Step 5. Sum the ratings across criteria for each idea.
Step 6. Choose the idea(s) for progressing to the next stage. - 28Readiness for changeKey indicators
How significant and important do people believe the discrepancy is?
How meaningful or valued is the desired outcome?
Who is willing to take responsibility for the change?
What are the critical priorities for the key stakeholders?
Do people believe there are realistic opportunities available to close the gap? Is a solution possible at this time?
Is the capacity to implement change present and recognised? That is, do key change agents have sufficient skills, credibility and influence to initiate and mange change? - 29Variation in ReadinessInnovators: people who drive the change forward and encourage others to adopt change (change champions)
Early adopters: welcome the change and quickly change the way that they do things
Majority: people who adopt the change (be it early or late)
Laggards or resistors: reluctant to change what they do and may actively try and stop change implementation - 30Pfeffer (1992) - 7-point plan1. Decide your change goals.
2. Diagnose patterns of dependence interdependence in the organisation, including which individuals are influential.
3. Establish stakeholders views of your goals.
4. Identify stakeholders power bases (reward, legitimate, coercion, etc)
5. Identify the bases of your own power and influence
6. Determine effective strategies and tactics for the situation
7. Choose a course of action - 31Force-field analysis(Lewin, 1951) is a technique for defining and analysing the pressures for or against a change in behaviour of an individual or group within an organisation.
- 32Force-field analysis stepsStep 1: Define the desired outcome – i.e., the result that we are trying to achieve
This may have been done in the prescription phase of the change process. This outcome should be precisely defined. For example, define the outcome in terms of a result such as increased productivity, reduced absence, etc
Step 2: Itemise pressures for and against change. These items can be identified through a series of interviews with individuals/groups.
Step 3: Prioritise positive and negative consequences.
Step 4: Plan to reduce negatives and increase positives. - 33Positive devianceDoing things differently through role modelling others in the organisation
- 34Kanter identified 10 major change-related problems1. Loss of control: Change can be threatening. Most people want to feel in control of their lives. One way to reassert control is to resist changes.
2. Excess uncertainty: Simply not knowing enough about the change.
3. Surprise: People are easily shockeed by decisions or requests.
4. Difference effect: Change requires people to become conscious of, and to question, familiar routines and habits.
5. Loss of face: If accepting change means that the way things were done in the past was wrong then people are very likely to resist change,
6. Concerns about future competence: Sometimes people may resist change because they have personal concerns about their future ability to be effective after the change.
7. Ripple effects: Change sometimes disrupts other plans or projects that have nothing to do with the job, cause resistance.
8. More work: One reasonable source of resistance to change often creates more work.
9. Past resentments: resist when the organisation tells them that they now have to do things differently.
10. The threat is real: Lose their jobs. - 35Leadership strategies for responding to resistance to change- Allow room for participation in change
- Provide a clear picture of the change, try and minimise surprise
- Share information about the change
- Divide a big change into more manageable and familiar steps.
- Allow for “digestion” of change requests, so that people have a chance to become accustomed to the idea of changing before they need to implement
- Repeatedly demonstrate your own commitment to change
- Show how the change will benefit others and how commitment to change is in an individual’s best interests - 36More Leadership Strategies For Responding to Resistance to Change…- Make requirements and standards clear; tell people exactly what is expected of them in the change
- Offer positive reinforcement for competence; let people know that they can do it
- Look for and reward pioneers, innovators, and supporters
- Identify early successes to serve as role models and make champions of those who manage change successfully
- Help people find or feel compensated for the extra time and energy required
- Try to avoid creating obvious losers from the change but if there are some then be honest with them about it - 37Four behaviours that make leaders effective- They encourage others to generate ideas for change
- They provide psychological security for people involved in change
- They enhance trust, which is often necessary for risk-taking, creativity/innovation - 38Which five components make a leader charismatic?1. An extraordinarily gifted person
2. A social crisis
3. A vision providing a radical solution to a problem
4. A set of followers who are attracted to the exceptional person and believe that the leader is linked to transcendent powers
5. The validation of the leader’s extraordinary gifts through repeated success - 39Five reasons why transformational leadership could be ineffectiveThere reasons why transformational leadership is not the only leadership solution during change.
Followers may become overly dependent on highly charismatic leaders for vision and direction. Studies have highlighted the “dark side” of charisma, using leaders like Hitler to show how commitment to a leader gives us a sense of identity but also can lead us to lose objective thought and self-reflection.
While transformational leadership is appropriate for creating a vision and building readiness for change, other processes may be useful to execute the vision.
People typically focus on the positive characteristics of charismatic leaders, but this often has a dark side
Charismatic leaders are also often narcissistic (Maccoby 2000)
Leaders can lead followers to use unethical tactics - 40Styles of change leadership for managing people1. Collaborative: Widespread participation by the employees in important decisions about the organisation's future and about the means of bringing about organisational change
2. Consultative: Consultation with employees, primarly about the means of bringing about change, with the possibility of limited involvement in goal setting relevant relevant to their area of expertise or resposibility
3. Directive: The use of managerial authority and direction as the main form of decision making about the organisation's future and about the means of bringing about organisational change
4. Coercive: Managers or outside parties forcing or imposing change on key interest groups in the organisation - 41CoachesKey attributes: People-centred, inspirational, skilled at informal communication / negotiation, they project respect and trust colleagues
- 42Charismatic LeaderKey attributes: Top down delivery, symbolic interaction, personal image is used as a lever for change (“walk the talk”), draw impressionable change agents to them
- 43CaptainsKey attributes: Rational, authoritative, directive, task focused, and reply on expertise / position authority. Often the style of technically trained managers, engineers, lawyers, etc.
- 44CommanderKey attributes: Tough minded, directive prepared to take tough measures against resistance and good at identifying resistance in advance
- 454 ways to collect dataObservation: Another good source of information is personal observation and experience.
Surveys, questionnaires, and inventories: Information from groups of people can be collected efficiently and effectively by using surveys. For example, if you were interested in the success of a new sales method you might survey staff and customers.
Interviews: Talking with people directly produces excellent qualitative information. It gives people the opportunity to explain their answers and can elicit deep and meaningful information.
Electronic and other information: collect information on how others have dealt with issues in the past, or how competitors have address - 46How to feeding data back to participants- Limited, human brains can only cope with so much information in one go
- Impactful, feedback should be limited to those things that participants can do something about.
- Comparative, : feedback data can be ambiguous without some benchmark as a reference. Whenever possible, data from comparative groups should be provided to give organisation members a better idea how their group fits into a broader context.
Unfinalised, to be open to feedback about your feedback. - 47Tecniques for Monitoring Progress and Evaluating Change1. Measuring change program activity (meetings, training programs, communications, visible sponsors)
2. Measuring acceptance of change (performance outcomes of the change) - 48Key factors in Theory E- Maximise shareholder value
- Manage change from the top
- Emphasise structure and systems
- Plan and establish programs
Motivate through financial incentives
Consultants analyze problems and shape solutions - 49Key factors Theory O- Develop orgaixational capabilities
- Encourage participation from the botton up
- Build corporate culture, employees, behavior and attitudes
- Experiment and evolve
- Motivate through commitment-use pay as fair exchange
- COnsultants support manafement in shaping their own solutions - 50Choosing Approaches to Measuring EffectivenessQuality of work life approach: extensive literature arising from the human relations school which regards effectiveness as the degree to which an organisation provides quality of work life for the individuals within it. This is commonly the perspective adopted by the union movement and individual employees.
Managerial Approach: managers are ultimately responsible to shareholders, constituents, or trustees for making the best use of available resources to provide products/services. The managerial approach forms the basis of management practice and is used by shareholders, owners, investors, and managers to evaluate an organisation’s performance. - 51Theory O-approachesIt is people-centered
It is often focused on incremental or developmental change
It focuses on the individual, group, and the organisation as a whole
It uses participation and developing consensus as a means of achieving change
It aims for lasting change achieved by altering human behaviour
It views the organisation as capable of solving its own problems by helping members to gain the knowledge and skills necessary
It was founded on the assumption that change can be planned - 52'The Toyota Way'A Mix of Theory O and E
- 53An explicit theory of changeOne that we are conscious of. It is something that we can describe to others and reflects our beliefs about how change best occurs, and also reflects our values about how we would like change to occur.
- 54An implicit theory of changeGuides our choices about managing change but we are not aware of it. That is, we have certain beliefs and values about change but we can’t articulate them.
- 55Action Research definitionA theory O Method
“…the process of systematically collecting research data about an ongoing system relative to some objective goal or need of that system; feeding these data back into the system; taking action by altering selected variables within the system, based both on data and hypotheses; and evaluating results of actions by collecting more data - 56What is action research?Depending on your perspective, action research has three forms:
1. A change planning tool and intervention
2. A research methodology
3. A way of life
In action research, the change agent is not the only person playing a dual role of consultant and researcher. The participants in the change project also take part in the collection, analysis, and findings of the research. Altrichter et al. (2002) described it as “enquiry with people, rather than research on people”. - 57What is action research? Part 2.- Collaboration: takes place between researchers and participation at all stages of the action research process.
- Incorporation of local knowledge: incorporates the knowledge and analysis of participants in the change program, acknowledging the value of local context and knowledge. This also develops participants stake in the research.
- Eclecticism and diversity: uses theories, methods, and information from whatever source the participants jointly believe to be relevant. It embraces multicausality – economic, political, demographic, and cultural dimensions should be included in the research.
- Case orientation: action research projects are essentially case-driven and from a series of cases we may be able to propose general principles. - 58What is Action Research? Part 3.Emergent processes: the process of action research is an emergent process which intensifies as participation increases throughout the research process. Full participation is not always possible but increased participation is always desirable.
Linking scientific understanding to social action: self-managed participation in the research process is capable of producing scientifically and socially meaningful results, leading to better understanding by participants of their own system.
Can involve:
Discussions/interactions/notes/reflections
Case studies, individuals & groups
Photography
Stories,anecdotes,impressions
Meeting minutes
Creative arts
Questionnaires,surveys
Videos
Field notes
Audio tapes - 59There are some obvious overlaps between action research and this change agent tool. What are the two main differences?Action research is something which engages groups of people (and in some cases the whole organisation who collectively reflect on and discuss action. The change process framework is used by a key change agent to build a plan for a change intervention.
Action researchers both own the process and participate in it. A key change agent uses the change process framework to devise a program which others participate in. - 60Senge’s five disciplines- System Thinking
- Personal Mastery
- Mental Models
- Shared Vision
- Team Learning - 61Scenario thinkingScenario thinking involves creating images of possible futures for the organisation and evaluating the implications of those possible futures. Scenario thinking sessions are usually conducted in groups although there may be opportunities for individuals to develop their own scenarios first.
The aim of scenario thinking is not to develop an accurate picture of the future; the future is rarely predictable. Rather, the aim is to articulate and examine one’s current understandings or mental models.
Scenario thinking is an especially powerful way to surface the assumptions, beliefs, and values of a group of managers. Since this involves an element of risk, this approach is best conducted in a climate of trust and tolerance. - 62System Thinking - Senges fifth disciplineSystems thinking is defined in terms of the following:
Being able to see a pattern of relationships in a system rather than merely simple cause-and-effect relationships
Understanding the impacts of processes, delays, and dynamics
Recognising one’s own role in human systems rather than blaming others or the environment
Being able to recognise points of high leverage in a system where small changes can produce large effects
Recognising systemic causes and working on these rather than treating the symptoms
Understanding that what is good at one level of a system can be bad at a higher level. E.g., subsidies can be good for individual organisations and bad for the economy - 635 clusters of capabilities includingBusiness technology
Marketing and selling
Performance management
Engagement
Development - 64Why is it important to Understand Capabilities?There are two reasons to understand the capabilities organisation possess
1. Building strong capabilities can have a direct impact on the performance of the organisation.
2. Capabilities influence an organisation’s ability to change and to sustain change. There are two ways that this occurs. The organisation can develop specific capabilities that drive change.
For example, Turner and Crawford’s engagement and development capabilities. Other change capabilities might include experimentation or idea generation.
Second, the organisation’s capabilities may be effective at supporting change. For example, a capability in market research means new ideas can be turned into new products quickly and successfully by testing them in the market. - 65How to build and manage CapabilitiesIdentify capabilities: how do you know what you are good at? What stops you creating new capabilities rather than building on the ones you currently have? Taking the time to reflect on current activities and performance is one way of identifying the current capabilities the organisation has. Analyses of internal processes can highlight which ones are most contributing to current performance. In a SWOT analysis, capabilities can be identified in the strengths you identify.
Identify capabilities gaps and close them: in the course of developing strategies, managers may come to realise that a firm lacks certain critical resources and capabilities. For example, a company that decides to position itself as a supplier of prestige automobiles may have to make investments in brand names, a corporate reputation for quality, different distribution channels, etc. After identifying the gaps between the organisation’s current resources and capabilities and those it requires to successfully implement its new strategy, managers can take steps to acquire the needed resources. - 66—
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- Flashcards on Managing People, created by Klara tjäder on 24/11/2019.
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