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Psyc 281 Cue Cards
Cards in this deck (179)
- 1What are the two ways of learning (models) in classical conditioning?Stimulus response (S-R): NS becomes directly associated with UR and comes to elicits the SAME response as the UR
S-S stimulus stimulus: NS becomes directly associated with the US and comes to elicit a response that is RELATED to that US - 2What is S-S (stimulus stimulus) theory?The conditioned stimulus acts as a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus
Light: Food --> Salivation
Light --> Salivation
Light activates "salivation centre" in brain - 3What is preparatory-response (P-R) theory?The conditioned response prepares the individual for unconditioned stimulus
Light: Shock-->Jump (Fear)
Light-->Fear
Light has a predictive habit, prepares rat for the predicted response - 4What is the compensatory- response model?A CS that has been repeatedly associated with the primary response (a-process) to a US will eventually come to elicit a compensatory response (b-process)
Drug addiction! - 5What is the Rescorla-Wagner Theory?It explains overshadowing and blocking. The unconditioned response can support only a limited amount of conditioning.
- 6What is the over-expectation effect?A decrease in conditioned response due to overriding of the expectation of high association values
- 7What are phobias?Overgeneralization to seemingly harmless stimuli in the real world
- 8Describe the conditioned fear response in 11 month old AlbertPaired a loud noise with the rat. Started to be startled by rats. He began to overgeneralize (startled by other animals too)
- 9What are the factors in conditioning phobias?1. Observational Learning: display of fear by others causes you to be scared as well
2. Temperament: base level of emotionality (unstable, shy, withdrawn)
3. Preparedness: how easily a [articular phobia is acquired
4. History of Control: ability to control your life (reduce anxiety)
5. Incubation: strengthening of fear response as a result of a brief exposures to conditioned stimulus
6. US Reevaluation: altering the strength of the response
7. Selective Sensitization: increases in reactivity to potentially fearful stimulus - 10What are the two ways to treat phobias?1. Systematic Desensitization: pairing relaxation with a succession of stimulus that elicit increasing levels of fear
2. Flooding: Prolonged exposure to feared stimulus (maximizes extinction) - 11What is instrumental conditioning?Behavior is instrumental in producing the consequence
- 12What are the 3 components of Operant Conditioning?1. Operant response: response that produces consequence
2. Operant consequences: consequence increase or decrease results in probability of reoccurrence
3. Discriminative stimulus: stimulus precedes response indicated consequences (reinforcement or punishment in the presence of stimuli will influence occurrence behaviour) - 13What is aversion therapy?Attempts to reduce the attractiveness of a desired event by associating it with an aversive stimulus
- 14What is counterconditioning?A procedure where a CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response
- 15What is incubation?The strengthening of a conditioned fear response because of brief exposures to the aversive CS
- 16What is preparedness?A predisposition within a species to learn certain kinds of associations more easily than others
- 17What is reciprocal inhibition?Certain responses are incompatible with each other and the occurrence of one response necessarily inhibits the other
- 18What is selective sensitization?A increase in one's reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to a unrelated stressful event
- 19What is temperament?An individual's base level of emotion and reactivity to stimulation
- 20What is avoidance behaviour?A behaviour that occurs before the aversive stimulus is presented and prevents its delivery
- 21What are contrived reinforcers?Reinforcers that have been deliberately arranged to modify a behaviour, they are not a typical consequence of the behaviour
- 22What is a discriminative stimulus?A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement
- 23How do we assess if contingency is occurring?1. Does the consequence consist of something being presented or withdrawn?
2. Does the consequence serve to strengthen or weaken the behaviour? - 24What is positive reinforcement?Indicated that something will be presented, usually something rewarding
Lever press --> food presented
(tendency to press level increases) - 25Is immediate or delayed reinforcement preferred?Immediate: easier to close associate
- 26What is negative reinforcement?Indicted that something will be removed, usually something aversive
press level --> shock turned off
(tendency to press lever increases) - 27What is positive punishment?Indicated that something will be presented, usually something aversive
press lever--> shock turned on
(tendency to press lever decreases) - 28What is negative punishment?Indicted that something will be removed, usually something rewarding
John talks to other women-->his girlfriend ignores him
(John stops talking to other women) - 29What is primary and secondary reinforcers?Primary: things we inherently like (food, water), also known as unconditioned reinforcers
Secondary: things associated with other reinforcers (always learned), usually previously conditioned stimulus
tone: food -->salvation
tone-->salvation (tone would be secondary reinforcer) - 30What are generalized secondary reinforcers?Associated with many other reinforcers
Money is associated with food, water, house, spouse - 31What is intrinsic and extrinsic reinforcement?Intrinsic: provided by engaging in the behaviour (usually something you like to do)
Extrinsic: provided by some external consequence (reading your textbook to get a good grade) - 32In which situations is intrinsic motivation undermined?1. The reward is expected
2. Reward is tangible
3. Reward is given for performance only - 33What are natural reinforcers?Reinforcers that are naturally provided for a certain behaviour (are the typical consequence of that behaviour)
- 34How do you shape behaviour?1. Get the behaviour
2. Mark the behaviour
3. Reinforce the behaviour - 35What is schedule effects?The effect of the schedule on rate and pattern of the behaviour
- 36What are continuous and intermittent schedules?Continuous: every time the behaviour occurs it is reinforced (useful for shaping and strengthening)
Intermittent: only some of the time the behaviour is reinforced (usually when association has been learned and doesn't need to be rewarded every time) - 37What are the 4 intermittent schedules?Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval - 38What is a fixed ratio schedule?Reinforcement is based on a fixed number of responses
(lower resistance to extinction, long post-reinfrocement pause) - 39What is ratio strain?Disruption in responding due to an over-demnading response requirement
- 40What is variable ratio?Reinforcement is contingent upon a varying, unpredictable number of responses (begging behaviour in animals, slots at casino)
- 41What is fixed interval schedule?Reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a fixed, predictable period of time (rat presses lever, after 30 seconds gets reward): lower resistance to extinction and a long pause after reinforcement
- 42What is variable interval schedule?Reinforcement is contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time: higher resistance to extinction, steady rate of response, are good as a base line schedule to test different variables
- 43What is fixed duration schedule?Reinforcement depends upon continuous performance of a behaviour for a fixed, predictable period of time (keeping the wheel running for 30 seconds)
- 44What is variable duration schedule?Reinforcement depends upon continuous performance of a behaviour for a varying, unpredictable prior of time (less precise)
- 45What is discriminative stimulus for extinction and punishment?Extinction: stimulus signals the absence of reinforcement
Punishment: stimulus signals that a response will be punished - 46What is an escape behaviour?A behaviour that result in the termination of an aversive stimulus
- 47What is law of effect? (Thorndike)Behaviors that lead to a satisfying state of affairs are strengthened or "stamped in" while behaviour that lead to an un-sastisfying or anything sat of affairs are waked or "stamped out"
- 48What two things does a punisher/reinforcer do?1. follows a behaviour
2. decreases/ increases the future probability of that behaviour - 49What is shaping?The gradul creation of new operant behaviour through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behaviour
- 50What is an adjusting schedule?The réponse requirement changes as a function of the organisms performance while responding for the previous reinforcer
- 51What is the behavioural bliss point approach?The theory that an organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behaviour in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement
- 52What is a chained schedule?Consisting of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each with its own stimulus and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer
- 53What is a complex schedule?Consisting of a combination of two or ,ore simple schedules
- 54What is a conjunctive schedule?A type of complex schedule in which the requirements of two or more simple schedules must be met before a reinforcer is delivered
- 55What is drive reduction theory?An event is reinforcing to the extent that it is associated with a reduction in some type of physiological drive
- 56What is a fixed time schedule?The reinforcer is delievered following a fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of the organisms behaviours
- 57What is the goal gradient effect?An increase in the strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near to the goal
- 58What is incentive motivation?Motivation derived from some property of the reinforcer, as opposed to an internal drive state
- 59What is a non-contingent schedule of reinforcement?A schedule in which the reinforcer is delivered independent of any response
- 60What is the Premack principle?The notion that a high-probaility behaviour can be used to reinforce a low-probability behaviour
- 61What is the response deprivation hypothesis?The notion that a behaviour can serve as a reinforcer when:
1. access to the behaviour is restricted
2. its frequency thereby falls below its preferred level of occurrence - 62What is a response-rate schedule?Reinforcement is directly contingent upon the organism rate of response
- 63What is schedule of reinforcement?The response requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement
- 64What is a variable time schedule?Reinforcer is delivered following a varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of the organism behaviour
- 65What is anticipatory contrast?The process whereby the rate of response varies inversely with an upcoming (anticipated) change in the rate of reinforcement
- 66What is behavioural contrast?A change in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces an opposite change in the rate of response on another component
- 67What is differential reinforcement of other behaviour? (DRO)Reinforcement of any behaviour other than a target behaviour that is being extinguished
- 68What is discrimination training?Applied to operant conditioning; the differential reinforcement of respond in the presence of one stimulus and not another
- 69What is discriminative stimulus for extinction?A tumulus that singles the absence of reinforcement
- 70What is errorless discriminative training?A discriminative training procedure that minimizes the number of errors and reduces many of the adverse effects associated with the discrimination training
- 71What is extinction?The non-reinforcment of a previously reinforced response, the results of which is a decrease in the strength of that response
- 72What is an extinction burst?A temporary increase in the frequency and intensity of responding when extinction is first implemented
- 73What is fading?The process of gradually altering the intensity of a stimulus
- 74What is generalized gradient?A graphic description of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the SD and vary along a continuum
- 75What is a multiple schedule?A complex schedule consisting of two or more independent schedules presented in sequence
- 76What is negative contrast effect?The process whereby am increase in the rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produced a decrease in the rate of response on the other component
- 77What is partial reinforcement effect?The process whereby behaviour that has been maintained on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement extinguishes more slowly than behaviour that has been maintained on a continuous schedule
- 78What is peak shift effect?Following discrimination training, the peak of a vernalization gradient will shift from the SD to a stimulus that os further removed from the discriminative stimulus for extinction
- 79What is positive contrast effect?The process whereby a crease in rate of reinforcement on one component of a multiple schedule produces a increase in are of response on the other component
- 80What is resistance to extinction?The extent to which responding persists after an extinction procedure has been implemented
- 81What is resurgence?The reappearance during extinction of other behaviours that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement
- 82What is spontaneous recovery?The reappearance of an extinguished response following a rest period after extinction
- 83What is stimulus control?A situation in which the persons elf a discriminative stimulus reliably affects the probability of a behaviour
- 84What is stimulus discrimination?In operant conditioning, the tendency for an operant response to be emitted more in the presence of one stimulus than another
- 85What is stimulus generalization?The tendency for an operant response to be emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to an SD
- 864 laws of association (Aristotle)1. Similarity: events that are similar are associated
2. Contrast: events that are opposites are associated
3. Contiguity: events that occur close in time or space are associated
4. Frequency: the more frequent two items occur together the stronger the association - 87Mind-body dualismSome human behaviours are reflexes that are automatic, while others are freely chosen/controlled by the mind
- 88What did british empiricist believe?That all knowledge is a function of experience (John Locke)
- 89StructualismAssumes that it is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements that compose it (Titchener and Wundt)
- 90IntrospectionWhen the subject attempts to describer their conscious thoughts, emotions and sensory
- 91FunctionalismAssumes that the mind evolved to help us adapt to the world (James)
- 92BehaviourismFocuses on the study of environmental influences on observable behaviour
- 93Law of parsimonySimilar explanations are better!
- 945 schools of behaviourism: MethodologicalPsychologists should study only those behaviours that can be directly observed (Watson)
S-R theory: learning is believed to involve establishing a connection between a stimulus and response - 955 schools of behaviourism: NeobehaviourismUtilizes intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to explain behaviour (Hull)
These intervening variables could be fatigue or hunger - 965 schools of behaviourism: CognitiveUtilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes, to help explain behaviour (Tolman)
These intervening variables could be cognitive maps or expectations - 97Latent learningWhen learning occurs without observation and only becomes present under different conditions
- 985 schools of behaviourism: Social learning theoryA cognitive behavioural approach that emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables in explaining human behaviour
- 99Reciprocal determinismWhen environmental events, observable behaviour and person variables are seen as having a reciprocal influence on each other
- 1005 schools of behaviourism: RadicalEmphasizes the influence of the environment on observable behaviour and views thoughts/feelings as behaviours that themselves need to be explained (Skinner)
- 101CountercontrolThe deliberate manipulation of environmental events to alter their impact on our behaviour
- 102Covert behaviorBehaviour that can be perceived only by the person performing the behaviour
- 103Appetitive/Aversive stimulusAp: an event that an organism will seek out
Av: an event an organism will avoid - 104Establishing operationA procedure that affects the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus
- 105DeprivationProlonged absence of an event, which often increases the appetitiveness of that event
- 106SatiationThe prolonged exposure to an event which often decreases the appetitiveness of that event
- 107Rate of responseThe frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time
- 108LatencyThe length of time required for the behaviour to begin
- 109Interval recordingThe measurement of whether or not a behaviour occurs during each interval within a serious of continuous intervals
- 110Time-sampling recordingMeasures whether or not a behaviour occurs during each interval within a series of discontinuous intervals
- 111Descriptive researchInvolves describing the behaviour and the situation within which it occurs (no manipulation)
- 112Experimental researchUsed to discover cause and effect relationships
- 113Fixed action patternA fixed sequence of responses elicited by a specific stimulus
- 114SensitizationAn increase in the strength of an elicited behaviour following repeated presentations to the eliciting stimulus
- 115Opponent-process theoryProposes that an emotional event elicits two competing process: a primary process (a) and an opponent process (b)
- 116Delayed conditioningOnset of the NS precedes the oner of US (overlap)
- 117Trace conditioningOnset and offset of NS precedes the onset of US (do not overlap)
- 118Simultaneous conditioningNS and US onset at the same time
- 119Backward conditioningOnset of NS follows the onset of US (can result in inhibitory conditioning)
- 120AcquisitionThe process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response through repeated parings of a NS with a US
- 121ExtinctionWhen a conditioned response is weaker or eliminated when the CS is pearly presented in the absence of the US
- 122Spontaneous recoveryThe reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest period after extinction
- 123DisinhibitionThe sudden recovery of a response during a extinction procedure
- 124Stimulus generalizationThe tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS
- 1252 extensions on classical conditioningHigh order conditioning: a stimulus that is associated with a CS can also become a CS
Sensory preconditioning: when one stimulus is conditioned as a CS, another stimulus with which was previously associated can also become a CS - 126OvershadowingThe most intense member of a compound stimulus is more readily conditioned as a CS (interferes with conditioning of the least intense member)
- 127BlockingThe presence of a established CS interferes with conditioning of a new CS
- 128Latent inhibitionA familiar stimulus is morse difficult to condition as a CS than an unfamiliar stimulus
- 129Escape behaviourPerformance of the behaviour terminates the aversive stimulus
- 130Avoidance behaviourPerformance of the behaviour prevents the aversive stimulus from occurring
- 131Two process theory of avoidanceTwo processes are involved in learning an avoidance response, first process is classical conditioning of a fear response to a CS and the operant conditioning happens
- 132Exposure and response prevention (ERP)A method of treeing OCD that involves prolonged exposure to the anxiety arousing event while not engaging in the compulsive behaviour pattern that reduces anxiety
- 133Response costThe removal of a specific reinforcer following the occurrence of a problem behaviour
- 134Intrinsic punishmentThe activity itself is punishing such that the person performing the behaviour is now less likely to repeat it
- 135Extrinsic punishmentPunishment that is not an inherent aspect of the behaviour being punished. but simply follows the behaviour
- 136Primary (unconditoned) punisherAn event that is innately punishing
- 137Secondary (conditioned) punisherAn event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with some other punisher
- 138Generalized (generalized secondary) punisherAn event that has become punishing because it has in the past been associated with many other punishers
- 1397 problems with punishment1. punishment of inappropriate behaviour does not directly strengthen the occurrence of appropriate behaviour
2. person delivering the punishment could become an S^D for punishment
3. punishment might simply teach the individual to avoid the person who delivered the punishment
4. punishment is likely to elicit a sting emotional response
5. punishment can sometimes elicit an aggressive reaction
6. the use of punishment could teach the person that punishment is an acceptable means of controlling behaviour
7. the use of punishment is often strongly reinforced - 1403 benefits of punishment1. punishment can sometimes lead to an increase in social behaviour
2. punishment sometimes results in an improvement in mood
3. punishment can increase attention to the environment - 141How to make punishment effective?Punishment should be immediate rather than delayed
Punishment should consistently follow each occurrence of the unwanted behaviour
Punishment should be intense enough from the outset to suppress the target behaviour
Negative punishment is preferable
Punishment is more effective when accompanied by an explanation
Punishment should be combined with positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviour - 142Conditioned suppression theory of punishmentAssumes that punishment does not weaken a behaviour but instead produces an emotional response that interferes with the occurrence of the behaviour
- 143Avoidance theory of punishmentHolds that punishment actually involves a type of avoidance conditioning in which the avoidance response consist of any behaviour other than the behaviour being punished
- 144Premack principle of punishmentA low probability behaviour (LPB) can be used to punish a high probability behaviour (HPB)
- 145Concurrent schedule of reinforcementThe simultaneous presentation of two or more independent schedules, each leading to a reinforcer (allowed to choose between schedules)
- 146Matching lawThe proportion of responses emitted on a particular schedule matches the proportion of reinforcers obtained on that schedule
- 147UndermatchingThe proportion of responses on the richer schedule vs the poorer schedule is less different than would be predicted by matching (can occur when there is little cost for switching)
- 148OvermatchingThe proportion of responses on the riches schedule vs the poorer schedule is more different than predicted by matching (can occur when cost of switching is high)
- 149Bias from matchingOccurs when one response alternative attracts a higher proportion of reposes than would be predicted by matching (regardless of richness)
GOOD WAY TO TEST PREFERENCE - 150Melioration theoryThe distribution of behaviour in a choice situation shifts toward those alternatives that have higher value regardless of the long term effect on the overall amount of reinforcement (may be because the alternative may not require as much responding, overindulgence is a high reinforcement and behaviour is strongly governed by immediate vs delayed reinforcer)
- 151Skinner's controlling responesPhysical restraint (physically manipulating the environment)
Depriving and satiating (to deprive or satiate in order to control event reinforcer)
Doing something else
Self reinforcement and self punishment - 152Commitment responseAn action carried out at an early pony in time that serves either to eliminate or greatly reduce the value of an upcoming temptation
- 153Small but cumulative effects modelEach individual choice on a self control task has only a small but cumulative effect on our likelihood of obtaining the desired long term outcome
- 154Contagious behaviourA more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behaviour triggered by the occurrence of the same behaviour in another individual
- 155Generalized imitationThe tendency to imitate a new modelled behaviour in the absence of any specific reinforcement for doing so
- 156Personal process ruleA personal rule that indicates the specific process by which a task is to be accomplished
- 157Personal ruleA verbal description of a contingency that we present to ourselves to influence our behaviour (instructions)
- 158Rule-governed behaviourBehaviour that has been generated through exposure to rules
- 159Say-do correspondenceA close match between what we say we are going to do and what we actually do at a later time
- 160Stimulus enhancementDirecting attention to a particular place or object, making it more likely that the observer will approach that place or object
- 161True imitationDuplicating a novel behaviour to achieve a specific goal
- 162Vicarious emotional responseA classically conditioned emotional response resulting from seeing that emotional response exhibited by others
- 163Adjunctive behaviourAn excessive pattern of behaviour that merges as a byproduct of an intermittent schedule of reinforcement for some other behaviour
- 164AutoshapingA type of sign tracking in which a pigeon comes to automatically peck at a response key because the key light has even associated with the response-independent delivery of food
- 165Behaviour systems theoryA theory proposing that an animal's behaviour is organized into certain systems or categories, with each category containing a set of relevant reposes that can become activated in certain situations
- 166CS-US relevancean innate tendency to easily associate certain types of stimuli with each other
- 167Displacement activityAn apparently irrelevant activity sometimes displayed by animals when confronted by conflict or thwarted from attaining a goal
- 168Instinctive driftAn instance of classical conditioning in which a genetically based, fixed action patterned gradually emerges and displaces a behaviour that is being operantly conditioned
- 169PrepardnessAn innate tendency for an organism to more easily learn certain types of behaviour or to associate certain type of event with each other
- 170Sign trackingA type of elicited behaviour in which an organism approaches a stimulus that signals the presentation of an appetitive event
- 171Taste aversion conditioningA form of classical conditioning in which a food item that has even paired with gastrointetinal illness becomes a conditioned aversive stimulus
- 172Biophilia hypothesisThe inherited predisposition to be drawn to or bond with nature, including other animals
- 173Delayed matching-to-sampleA memory task in which the animal is first shown a sample stimulus and then, following some delay, is required to select that stimulus out of a group of alternative stimuli
- 174NumerosityAn understanding of quantity
- 175ReferenceThe ability to perceive arbitrary symbols with objects or events
- 176SemanticsThe meaning associated with symbols
- 177Syntaxthe system of grammatical rules by which symbols are arranged, as well how those symbols can be modified and interact with another
- 178Theory of mindTh tendency to impute mental states to other individuals
- 179Transitive inferenceA form of reasoning in which the relationship between two objects can be inferred by knowing the relationship of each to a third object
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- Flashcards on Psyc 281 Cue Cards, created by Justine Elliot on 03/03/2015.
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