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Description
Flashcards by Jo Gledhill, updated more than 1 year ago
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Created by Jo Gledhill
about 9 years ago
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| Question | Answer |
| Our reactions to stress have ----- value in --- | survival value evolutionary terms (i.e. hunter gatherers risking their lives finding food or shelter or territorial disputes with neighbours) |
| Animals/humans react to perceived threats with? | A general activation of the sympathetic nervous system which primes the animal/human for fighting or fleeing. This activation is associated with specific physiological actions in the body, both directly and indirectly through the release of adrenaline. This response regulates stress responses among animals/humans |
| Outline the physiology of the stress response? | Acceleration of heart and lung action Inhibition of stomach and intestinal action. General effect on the sphincters of the body. Constriction of blood vessels in many parts of the body. Liberation of nutrients for muscular action. Dilation of blood vessels for muscles. Inhibition of Lacrimal gland (responsible for tear production) and salivation. Dilation of pupil. Relaxation of bladder. Loss of hearing Tunnel Vision (loss of peripheral vision) |
| Why might the stress response be disruptive for humans in a modern setting | In most modern situations, humans rarely encounter emergencies that require physical effort, yet our biology still provides for them! Thus, we may find our stress response activated in situations where physical action is inappropriate This stress activation takes a toll on both our bodies and our minds |
| What happens when high levels of stress and physiological arousal are experienced over a long period of time | When high levels of stress & physiological arousal are experienced over a long period of time, detrimental effects on the individual’s physical & mental wellbeing may result. The effects of long term unmitigated stress can ultimately be harmful (i.e. chronic stressors such as marital disharmony, work problems, noise, overcrowding etc). |
| McGrath (1970) identified four conceptual categories of stress research, what are they? | An engineering conceptualization – this is seen as an external force exerting pressure on some object, the reaction being some kind of strain, which can result in breakdown. A situation based conceptualization–certain environmental events or characteristics cause stress (noise, heat low income etc). A response based conceptualization– based on the organism’s responses which indicate it is under stress. Selye identified General Adaptation Syndrome– to describe the body’s defensive activity in response to a wide variety of external events which demand adaptation – 3 stages; Alarm reaction (fight & flight) –The resistance stage & The Exhaustion stage An interactional conceptualization– emphasis on the importance of individuals interactions with the environment. Stress results from an individuals appraisal that coping resources available are less than needed to cope with a threat. Transactional model (Cox et al, 1978)“imbalance between perceived demand in the environment & the perceived capabilities of the individual to meet that demand” |
| Give criticisms of the engineering conceptualization of stress | cannot account for the ability for the effects of stress to be altered by the perceptions of the individual – frequently occurs in humans! |
| Give a criticism of the environmental conceptualization of stress | does not account for the idiosyncratic differences in response to the same stress situation/event & individuals react to them in very different ways & to differing degrees. Thus, there must be factors within individuals which modify their susceptibility to environmental events |
| give a criticism of the response conceptualization of stress? | it concentrates mainly on the physiological level of functioning and therefore sees all physiological response patterns as stress inducing – surprise, passion, fear & anger may result in such a response but may not necessarily be interpreted as stress! |
| What does the 'person-environment fit' refer to? | Caplan, 1975: refer to the extent with which the individuals skills & capabilities match the job demands, as well as the extent the job environment supplies the individuals needs. Whenever there is a mismatch of either = Occupational Stress! |
| Describe occupational stress in the NHS? | Research suggests that the most at risk groups are the emergency services & the mental health professionals (Clohessy, 1999). Clinical Psychologists report higher than average stress levels (Cushway, 1992) In the UK 28% of doctors were found to be above the threshold for emotional distress on the GHQ (Firth-Cozens, 199a; Wall, 1997) |
| In general, list some causes of occupational stress? | Lack of supervision/support from managers Unsociable shift patterns Long hours Being of low status Poor promotional prospects Excessive bureaucracy Job insecurity Lack of clarity about job requirements Being set unrealistic targets Having no say in decision making Working in isolation Lack of variety in job Poor physical working conditions Insufficient training to use technology Workload – too much or too little Responsibility without control Low pay |
| Research into personal factors of sources of stress has focused? | on genetic/temperamental factors, acquired/learned factors & personality disposition. |
| Give an overview of the genetic/temporal factors that may affect stress? | Maslach & Jackson (1978) suggest sex differences in coping with stress (learned or genetic?). Intelligence another factor (Payne, 1988). Adaptations to shift work – constitutional differences (Frese & Okonek, 1984). Some individuals naturally more outgoing, gregarious, extraverted, aggressive, novelty seeking or sensation seeking than others (see Young et al, 2003). |
| Describe acquired/learned characteristics that can lead to stress? | These can include age, experience, & socio-economic factors. Jackson (1978) younger individuals experience more stress. Seligman (1975) individuals with less experience suffer more stress. Bachman maintains that socio-economic status influences occupational aspiration in children more than any other variable. Learned characteristics include dysfunctional beliefs & attitudes – these are known to underlie a number of common mental health problems. These unhelpful beliefs & attitudes influence how we perceive & interpret our environment – determining what we find to be stressful & how we deal with it (see Young 2003 & maladaptive schemas) |
| what personality dispositions can affect stress? | “hardiness” – Kobasca (1978) Internal/External Locus of control (Rotter, 1966) Enduring Trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1971) Type A & Type B individuals (Friedman & Roseman, 1985) It appears that it is the extremes in personalities can cause problems & strain |
| outline some interpersonal sources of stress | Edelman (1993) states that supportive working relationships are very important in enduring a lower incidence of employee physical & mental illness Nurses (helping professions) experience increased stress due to interpersonal nature of work (Rees & Cooper, 1992; Rodgers, 1998). Interpersonal conflicts and personality clashes huge source of stress in & outside of work. |
| outline the state of bullying in the NHS | Bullying at work major problem (Adams, 1992) – rife in NHS. MSF survey in 2003 of 537 community nurses half bullied, mainly by senior colleagues. Common themes involved excessive supervision, humiliation, belittling of efforts, marginalized & aggression. |
| How can individuals home life effect the way they react to stress at work? | Life outside of work can also impact on how individuals cope at work & vice versa. Some of the main sources include diff with partner, family conflicts, domestic pressures, children etc. Difficult environmental factors such as overcrowding, awkward neighbours & financial worries can add to stress (Fletcher, 1991; Fontana, 1997). Positively – having good social supports outside work can act as a buffer against stress at work (House, 1981; Colton & Wills, 1985). A good marriage is a protective factor but understandably separation & divorce have adverse consequences (Crosby, 1985). ‘Dual careers’ can also be a cause of stress, as they result in complexity & tensions around who gives up their career (Cooper, 1986). Also an atmosphere of competition can arise (Hiler & Philiber, 1982). |
| what does Bamber's (2006) model propose? | This model proposes that each individual employee brings with them a unique set of personal attributes & needs, temperament, beliefs & assumptions (cognitive schemata), behavioural coping strategies, physical constitution, energy level, intelligence, knowledge, skills & training to the job. In turn, the job has built in to its content & context characteristics which place demands on the employee. The model proposes that if the individuals attributes are significant enough to meet the demands of the job & the work environment also meets the individuals needs = job satisfaction = coping, positive mental health & low stress. If the individual does not have these occupational stress is likely. |
| Costs to the nation of occupational stress: it is estimated that up to ---% of all sickness absence from work is due to stress. | 40% |
| What costs are there to the individual of occupational stress | – with mild stress levels the individual can experience physical ailments such as headaches, backache, poor sleep, increased heart rate, raised blood pressure, dry mouth, sore throat & indigestion (McDonald & Doyle, 1981). Other somatic symptoms associated with anxiety such as muscular pains, tremors, sweating, diarrhoea, feeling of dizziness (Snaith, 1981 With high levels of stress serious physical health problems can occur. There is a growing body of evidence in the field of psycho-neuro-immunology (PNI) that psychological stresses have the ability to impair the immune response & trigger auto-immune deficiency diseases (Fletcher, 1991; Cousins, 1989). The relationship between stress & diseases such as heart disease & cancer has also been researched. |
| what are the emotional costs of occupational stress? | Clinical levels of emotional distress may occur as a result of prolonged stress (Fontana, 1997). Tendency to under report for fear of being ‘struck off’. Emotional consequences include anxiety states (Watterson, 1976) & Depression Firth-Cousins, 1987). ’Burnout’ is another consequence – emotional & physical exhaustion (see Maslach, 1982). |
| What are the social costs of occupational stress? | social consequences include marital & family conflicts reflecting the stress of the work situation which the individual takes home with them. People under stress also withdraw from social rel. |
| What are the behavioural costs of occupational stress? | these include increased alcohol & drug abuse. The Stress foundation also highlight under & overeating, change in sleep patterns, tiredness, decreased libido & increased smoking, interpersonal conflicts, reduced productivity & accident proneness |
| Since stress is an interaction between the individual & the environment, interventions aimed at managing stress fall into which categories? | Helping individuals develop coping strategies Reducing the source of stress in the work environment |
| Developing a More Healthy Lifestyle – can act as a buffer to stress. How can individuals suffering from stress be more healthy? | David Fontana (1997) Keeping physically fit A balanced diet Strict moderation of drugs Sleep & rest |
| describe type A behaviour? | Type A behaviour is typified by behavioural patterns such as being highly competitive, hostile, walking & eating rapidly, impatience, feeling guilty about relaxing. Type A are more prone to stress related illness. |
| describe type B behaviour? | typified by relaxed & uncompetitive traits – extreme Type B’s problems can exhibit unmotivated and uninterested traits |
| How can identity interact with occupational stress? | a major part of a person’s identity & self worth is derived from the job they do. Such individuals dedicate very little time to non-work activities & tend to see themselves & their status in terms of their job label. Many individuals confess to not realising how strong this identification is until they are made redundant, retired or move to different employment. Over identifiers need to develop their roles outside work & seek a sense of worth not connected directly to work. |
| what are the benefits of effective time management? | The benefits of effective time management includes greater efficiency & effectiveness, higher productivity, enhanced job satisfaction & reduced stress, increased leisure time. Time management involves differentiating between essential & non essential tasks, planning ahead, setting time limits, not getting side tracked & giving oneself time to plan & organise your week! See Fontanna (1990, 1993) for effective time management tips! |
| How can assertiveness effect occupational stress? | Assertiveness involves having the skills to be able to stand up for your own rights in such a way that you do not violate the rights of the other person (Back & Back, 1999). It is about expressing one’s needs, wants, opinions, feelings, beliefs in a direct & honest & appropriate way. It creates a ‘win-win’ situation. Non-Assertiveness is failing to stand up to your rights or doing so in a way that others can easily disregard them. There are a number of reasons why an individual may be unassertive. These include; lacking confidence to confront others, avoidance of conflict, fear of disapproval, fear of failure, not knowing your rights, confusing assertiveness with aggression & non assertiveness with politeness! Assertiveness training (Back & Back, 1999) begins with educating the individual about the differences between assertive, unassertive & aggressive behaviours & attitudes both verbal & non verbal. It educates them about their rights as a human being & as an employee. |
| what are good professional working relationships about? | – good professional working relationships are not about social manipulation but a genuine concern for the well-being of others & respect for others as people. Examples of good social skills include; making a good impression, holding one’s own in conversation, making appropriate self-disclosures, giving praise & encouragement (Fontana, 1994). The starting point to developing social skills is to become aware of & acknowledge one’s own strength & weaknesses in social situations. |
| what does relaxation training involve? | involves being able to ‘switch off’ & break the bad habit of tensing up whenever one is not consciously thinking about it. This includes formal & informal techniques. Informal techniques include; reading, watching TV, sport, taking a bath & hobbies More formal techniques include; relaxation techniques, yoga, massage, breathing techniques, meditation. |
| According to Lazarus (1999) the stress process begins with.... | the construal, or appraisal of an event as an imposition |
| stable psychological factors, like personality, may confer consistency to.... | appraisals and their sequelae across stressors. (Schneider, 2004) |
| Outline Schneider (2004) | This study examined the influence of personality on stressor appraisals and emotional, physiological, and behavioral responses to psychosocial stress. Appraisals were used to classify participants as threatened (they believed their coping resources were inadequate relative to stressor demands) or challenged (they believed their coping resources were commensurate with stressor demands). Personality was measured using a self report scale. Neuroticism predicted threat appraisals, and both were related to negative emotional experience and poor task performance. The influence of neuroticism on negative emotions and poor performance was mediated by threat appraisals. High neuroticism confers stress vulnerability, but only when conditions are construed as threatening. |
| Outline HANNIGAN, EDWARDS, & PHILIP BURNARD (2004) | Background: Stress can cause burnout, ill-health, high workforce turnover, absenteeism, lowered morale and reduced efficiency and performance. Method: Systematic review, focusing on stressors, moderators and stress outcomes and on stress management interventions. Results: Seven studies were included in the review. Just one reported an evaluation of a stress management intervention. Reported sources of stress for clinical psychologists included client characteristics, excessive workloads, professional self-doubt and poor management. Coping strategies included talking with colleagues, and other ‘‘active’’ approaches to personal stress management. Up to 40% of UK clinical psychologists participating in studies were found to be experiencing ‘‘caseness’’ levels of distress. Conclusions: Mental health work is stress-provoking. However, organizational and professional factors may militate against psychologists seeking and receiving support at work |
| What is the differences in occupational stress between individual clinical psychologists? | Levels of general psychological distress experienced by men decreased with grade, whereas for women no such reduction was observed. More experienced clinical psychologists reported less distress than junior or trainee psychologists. HANNIGAN, EDWARDS, & BURNARD 2004 |
| Outline Matud (2004) | This study examines gender differences in stress and coping in a sample of 2816 people (1566 women and 1250 men) between 18 and 65 years old, with different sociodemographic characteristics. The results of MANCOVA, after adjusting for sociodemographic variables, indicated that the women scored significantly higher than the men in chronic stress and minor daily stressors. Although there was no difference in the number of life events experienced in the previous two years, the women rated their life events as more negative and less controllable than the men. Furthermore, we found gender differences in 14 of the 31 items listed, with the women listing family and health-related events more frequently than the men, whereas the men listed relationship, finance and work-related events. The women scored significantly higher than the men on the emotional and avoidance coping styles and lower on rational and detachment coping. The men were found to have more emotional inhibition than the women. And the women scored significantly higher than the men on somatic symptoms and psychological distress |
| OUtline an issue in current stress research? | In current stress research there is a tendency to emphasize individual differences to the point where stress is being reduced to nothing more than a problem of idiosyncratic appraisals and coping styles, rendering concepts such as environmentally induced stress useless Semmer, 2003 |
| Billings and Moos (1981) distinguish between what methods of coping? | Active cognitive: individual attempts to manage their appraisal of stressful situation Active behavioural: overt behavioural attempts to deal directly with stressful situation Avoidance: individual attempts to avoid confronting problem |
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