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evxny English 42 cards

Cards in this deck (42)

  1. 1Glaser et al. into the effects of stress on the immune system75 medical students (age related bias) gave blood samples one month prior to sitting exams, used as a baseline measure. another sample was taken on the day of their first exam. asked to complete a questionnaire on any stressful life events they were experiencing at the time. Found a significant drop in NK cell activity (a type of lymphocyte) when measuring the second sample. NK cells are part of the immune system and fight off anti-gens such as viruses which supports the theory that stress can have a direct impact on weakening immune system. High External Validity as indicative of their real life experiences. baseline comparison helped control confounding factors such as personality variables. Extraneous variables could be a reduction in immune system functioning e.g staying up late therefore could lack internal validity. Correlational so no cause and effect
  2. 2Glaser et al. effects of stress on healing2 groups of women - one likely to be experience high levels of stress due to responsibility of looking after Alzheimers patients. Group 2 likely to be experiencing low levels of stress, with no stressful responsibilities. Both gave skin samples resulting in a wound. Length of time it took to heal was measured. on average group one took 9 days longer to heal. Interleukin B count (responsible for developing scar tissue) was also lower. Correlational - cant establish cause and effect, confounding variables may play a part. Ethical issues as subjected to physical harm. All women - gender bias, may be a confounding variable as hormone levels do effect immune system functioning.
  3. 3Cohen et al.394 p's had their stress index levels and ability to cope with their feelings of stress measured through the use of a questionnaire. Given nasal drops that gave them a cold virus. Direct correlation found between stress index levels and the probability of developing a cold highlighting the impact stress has on reducing the immune systems functioning. Big sample so external validity and can generalise, can't assume cause and effect. ethical issues as making them ill.
  4. 4Williams et al.Longitudinal study of 13,000 who completed a questionnaire on their anger levels. Before the study they had no signs of heart disease. 6 years later, 256 had suffered from heart attacks with those scoring highest on anger most likely. Those with moderate anger 35% more likely. can't establish cause as extraneous variables such as drinking or drugs as a coping mechanism may have caused the heart attacks. Questionnaire may be misinterpreted, or may be answered to reflect them in a specific light or depending on mood that day, therefore lack reliability and consistency if repeated.
  5. 5RusekCompared the health of medical professionals. Found that those of high-stress (GPs) were over 3 times more likely to suffer from heart disease than those of low-stress (pathologists).
  6. 6Brown et al.women who suffered conditions consistent with chronic stress e.g. raising 3 children under the age of 14 at home while unemployed were much more likely to develop depression. Working class women were also seen to be more susceptible to developing depression than middle class women due to presumably the stress of leaving their children in the care of other people while they went to work. Supports diathisis-stress model
  7. 7The Diathesis-stress modelMay explain how stress acts as a trigger for certain disorders when people may have a genetic vulnerability requiring a certain threshold to be hit for a disorders onset.
  8. 8Melchior et al.conducted a survey over a one year period in New Zealand finding people in high stress jobs had a 15% chance of developing clinical depression or anxiety while those in low stress jobs had only an 8% chance. There were also gender differences with women more susceptible to developing depression or anxiety than men.
  9. 9Rohlf et al.Found workers who had the role of euthanizing animals had a 10% chance of developing a form of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
  10. 10StueveFound that stressed only linked to depression, not other psychiatric disorders such as Schizophrenia
  11. 11Sheps et al.evidence for stress causing Cardio-vascular disorders - 173 men and women suffering reduced blood flow to heart were given public speaking test and their soaring blood pressures were measured. 50% were identified to have an irregular beat in their left ventricle with 44% of these dying 3 to 4 years later. This was compared to 18% of those who did not show any signs of an irregular beat. Conclusion: supported the evidence for stress increasing the risk of death in those people already suffering from poor coronary circulation. unclear whether it was stress caused the CD in the first place. Other factors may have caused the death.
  12. 12Rosanski et al.Stress may not always lead to CD due to individual differences - found that the sympathetic branch of the ANS was simply more reactive in some people than in others. This would mean some people were more likely to respond to stress with greater blood pressure than others and this could be due to genetics.
  13. 13Holmes and RaheThe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - objective way of measuring how 43 different life events could lead to stress and illness. Medical records of over 5000 patients examined, 43 life events that occurred to them within 12 months of their illness were compiled. 400 judges gave each life event a numerical value based on the amount of readjustment required, higher = greater adjustment. Questionnaire was given to patients to complete based on the number of life events they experienced in the 12 months proceeding their illnesses and the level of readjustment required. A positive correlation was found between a high SRRS score and experiencing some sort of physical illness. A score of over 300 80% more likely to have a heart attack, diabetes, ill, sport injury,
  14. 14Rahe et al.Conducted a further study using SRRS to try and gain better external validity that can be generalised. 2700 navy men completed the questionnaire just before they went on a duty tour, reflecting on life events 6 months before. They found a positive correlation between the number of illnesses recorded and a high SRRS score. Large sample size but not representative of wider population, can only be generalised to navy men. Individual differences could also have caused the illness. Can't assume cause and effect.
  15. 15Ben-Zur et al.looked at research involving 130 men and women of whom half were divorced, half widowed. Judging their levels of life satisfaction they found the widowed group had higher levels of happiness before their partners death than after. However the divorced couples had higher levels of satisfaction after their separations with lower levels of stress. Therefore not all big life changes lead to negative outcomes. suggested it is the “quality” of the event which is a better predictor with events that are unexpected or where people have least control that are deemed most detrimental to peoples health through stress.
  16. 16Lazarusargued that it wasn’t necessarily life events that were a good predictor for stress or illnesses but rather daily hassles. Said life events are rare and too infrequent to explain illnesses. Highlights how Individual differences are rarely factored in and higlights how it is not necessarily workplace stressors that are important but how people perceive them. Dependent on the persons own perceived ability to cope and this would open up practical training and real world application of stress related training such as “hardiness” or stress inoculation training.
  17. 17DeLongis (study)Study of 75 married couples using SRRS and daily hassles uplifting scale. found no correlation between life events and health however they did find a significant positive correlation between hassles and health problems that proceeded afterwards such as illnesses. This highlights a weakness with Holmes & Rahes theory that life changes contribute heavily to stress and thus illnesses as it appears daily hassles play a significant role too in some form.
  18. 18DeLongisCreated the Hassles and Uplifts Scale (HSUP). Helped assess peoples attitudes towards daily events and whether they perceived them positively or negatively. Found to be a better predictor of ill health in participants over the age of 45 than the SRRS with frequency and intensity of hassles correlating closely to illness. Males and females may perceive hassles and uplifts differently (women seeing pets as uplifts, men seeing them as hassles). better predictor of ill health in participants over the age of 45 than the SRRS. cant establish cause. age-related bias, elderly may perceive even the smallest things a hassle.
  19. 19Kanner et al.100 adults completed HSUP for 9 months. Certain hassles such as gaining weight or family health were more frequent. They found those with higher scores were more likely to experience psychological and physical health problems. The results from the Uplifts scale negatively correlated with ill health. Concluded a stronger correlation between daily hassles and ill health than that found with the SRRS. Can't establish cause. Quantitative data, but can't be sure the answers in the questionnaires were accurate, reducing validity.
  20. 20Marmot et al. (1997)Over 7000 civil service employees in London surveyed. Info obtained on their grade of employment, how much control they felt they had and how much support they felt they had. medical histories followed up 5 years later, lower grades of employment, little control and little support were more likely to have cardiovascular disorders. Lowest grade were 4 times more likely to die of a heart attack than highest grade. Conclude little control over work influences work stress and development of illness. doesnt apply to other jobs, smoking was found to be common in those who got ill. those with least control more likely to smoke, therefore other factors may take part. can't assume cause. Questionnaires might have lied in case it harmed their job prospects. Good sample so population validity increased, but can't be generalised
  21. 21Kroes et al.found that when the the demands of the organisation an employee worked for conflicted with their own needs this appeared to cause stress. For example if a job required them to show themselves as happy, calm and cheerful when really they felt another emotion this caused a role conflict in causing them to feel stress. Nurses, teachers and those working in public facing roles are likely more prone to this.
  22. 22Job-strain model of workplace stressThis proposed that stress from the workplace led to illness through one of two ways 1)greater job demands such as increased workload 2) and lack of control in ones job.
  23. 23Johansson et al.argued repetitive jobs requiring continuous attention with high responsibility may cause stress. Workers in a Swedish sawmill who worked on repetitive tasks at constant pace and a great deal of responsibility were found to have higher rates of illness and adrenaline than a low risk group. Stress hormones were also seen to be higher for the high risk group on their work days compared to their rest days. This suggests the type of workload and responsibility itself may be a factor and not necessarily whether its more or less. Higher validity than if based on self reports, sample culturally biased.
  24. 24Johnson et al.14’000 male and female workers, they looked at the relationship between cardiovascular disease and stress that may be specifically associated with social support, demand and control. evidence to support Marmot et al’s study with jobs seen to be demanding but have low levels of control result in increased likliness for coronary diseases. The workers who had lower social interaction opportunities with low control were in their roles were also seen to. This supports Marmot et al’s study of how lack of control as well as social interaction/ support may cause stress in the workplace. Good sample size, external validity. Can't assume cause and effect.
  25. 25Shultz et al.highlighted that people doing jobs they feel is beneath them and where “work underload” occurs for individuals can lead to health problems too. Studying over 16’000 adults across 15 european countries this study found that employees reporting “work underload” were actually also just as likely to have comparable stress related illnesses and lower job satisfaction with those reporting work overload. This highlights the need for a possible balance in workload to help workers cope more effectively.
  26. 26Friedman et al. (personality characteristics)identified 3 main characteristic types for type A personalities: 1) Competitiveness and achievement striving, 2) Impatience and time urgent and 3) Hostility and aggression. It is thought these in turn lead to an increase in blood pressure and stress hormone release and it is these hormones, such as corticosteroids, that then damage and suppress the immune system over a prolonged period of time which leads to the onset of coronary heart problems.
  27. 27Friedman et al.type A are more susceptible to stress-related illness. 3000 men aged 39 to 59 living in California measured for evidence of Coronary heart disease as well as their personality type (A or B) through the use of an interview conducted in a way that antagonized the participant to make their personality type would be more evident. Results found that 8 1/2 years later when re-assessed, 2x as many individuals with Type A personalities had died than Type B personalities. Type A's were also more inclined to have poor health-related habits e.g. smoking or a family history related to heart disease.
  28. 28Kobasa et al. (personality type)The Hardy Personality - make people more resistant to stressors and mentally stronger. 3 traits: Control - internal locus of control - they feel in control of their lives and don't feel controlled by outside things.
    Challenge - choose to see life's hurdles as 'challenges' which make them easier to overcome, also see life changes as opportunities not problems.
    Commitment - strong sense of self-purpose and engaged with the world around them.
  29. 29Kobasa et al. (study)Examined 800 business executives using SRRS. found 150 of them to be classified as a high stress group. Some of these 150 individuals had a much lower sickness record while others had a higher sickness record despite having similar amounts of pressure in their job roles. They concluded that it must be certain traits these individuals had that made them more resistant to the effects of stress and examining them he found they scored high for traits of the hardy personality. The group struggling to cope with stress scored lower suggesting it must be personality variables contributing to the results. Can't establish cause, individual differences may have contributed. May only apply to that group of men. Gender-bias.
  30. 30Brand et al.Criticizes Friedman et al's study - He conducted a follow up study some 22 years later involving the participants in Friedman et als original study. Results found 15% of the men (214) had died due to coronary heart disease and due to risk factors such as age, smoking and high blood pressure however no clear evidence to suggest a correlation between Type A personality and subsequent death weakening the theory that Type A personalities were linked to a higher risk of CHD.
  31. 31Myrtek et al.offered an explanation to Brand et als findings, after conducting a meta-analysis of 35 different studies. He found there was a correlation between heart disease and hostility which is a one part of Type A personality. This suggested the main risk factor may not actually be all the components of Type A personality but a small sub-section of it.
  32. 32Meichenbaum (psychological method of coping with stress)Proposed Stress-Inoculation Therapy (SIT). Based on principles of CBT, the 3 main stages are: Conceptualization: relationship develop, risks of stress made aware, stressors seen as a challenge not a problem.
    Skill Acquisition and Rehearsal: skills taught to help them cope with stressful situations e.g. relaxation techniques, expressing themselves assertively, positive thinking, communication and time management skills. These are cognitive (thinking based) as well as behavioral where new behaviors are taught too.
    Application and follow through: given support through progressively threatening situations in real life e.g. imagining the situation or role play.
  33. 33Meichenbaum (study)study comparing SIT and systematic desensitisation to treat patients with a phobia of snakes. Results found SIT to be more effective overall as it also treated a second non-treated phobia which demonstrated a strength for SIT as a viable therapy.
  34. 34Horan et al.supporting evidence for SIT as a viable psychological treatment - SIT was used to help first year law students to deal with stress and anxiety. Participants received weekly sessions of SIT for four weeks with results finding lower levels of anxiety and stress over time. Also those predicted to finish lower down in the class ranking also improved significantly both in stress and anxiety management but also their predicted rank.
  35. 35Maddi et al.Hardiness Training 1) Focusing - The patient is encouraged to become more self-aware of the signs of stress and physiological cues that occur such as increased heart rate, tension etc to identify the cause of the stress. 2) Reliving stressful situations/encounters - patient put through stressful situations and then analyses them with the therapist. This helps them gain a greater insight into how they currently cope. 3) Self-improvement - Awareness gained is used to form new methods of dealing with stressful situations, patient encouraged to see obstacles and problems as “challenges” as a way to positively reframe their perception of the stressors
  36. 36Williams et al.Support for Hardiness Training - found “high hardy” people tended to use more problem-focused and support-seeking steps when faced with stress compared to “low hardy” people who tended to use more wishful thinking and avoidance tactics in regards to stress. This suggests hardiness is effective as it promotes the skills that are proven to deal with stress more effectively.
  37. 37Benzodiazephines (Bz's)slow down the activity within the central nervous system and enhance the effects of GABA, a neurotransmitter which acts as the bodies natural form of anxiety relief and has a dampening affect on neurons while reduces serotonin activity with which high levels are associated with stress. BZ’s enhance the action of GABA by binding to GABA receptors at specific points boosting its effect. This then allows more chloride ions to enter the neuron making it more resistant to arousal. This results in the brains output of neurotransmitters which increase arousal and stress to be reduced resulting in the person feeling more relaxed.
  38. 38Beta-BlockersBeta-Blockers reduce sympathomedullary response to stress by acting on the sympathetic nervous system, reducing the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline which leads to increased heart-rate, blood pressure and cortisol release. They bind to beta-receptors on the heart which would normally be stimulated during arousal. This leads to a slower heart-rate and lower blood pressure through blood vessels contracting less. This results in less stress with the person feeling more relaxed and less anxious.
  39. 39Lockwood et al.effects of Beta-Blockers in real-life situations - conducted a study of over 2000 musicians with 27% of them reporting to be taking beta-blockers. They stated they felt much better about their ability and performances after consuming them and they were judged by critics as performing better too. This highlights the strength of such drug therapies in managing stress and their effectiveness.
  40. 40Kahn et al.drug therapies are effective - He compared 250 patients over 8 weeks with one half taking BZ’s while the other half took placebos. Those taking BZ’s reported reduced levels of anxiety and stress when compared to the control group on placebos.
  41. 41Hidalgoconfirms kahn et als findings - meta-analysis of studies comparing BZ’s to antidepressants finding BZ’s were more effective in reducing anxiety highlighting their application to the stress response.
  42. 42SRRS evaluationLarge sample size but on specific groups. Based on retrospective data so may be inaccurate. Individual differences make each life event different (good or bad) for everyone, therefore is reductionist.

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Flashcards on Untitled, created by evxny on 13/05/2015.
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