Flashcards
Lectures sept 8- oct 15
Cards in this deck (200)
- 1Describe developmental biologyIt is the process of cells differentiating into new or different cells. This process does not stop at birth.
- 2What are model organismsThe basic molecular and biochemical tools of development are very similar in all animals, with variations of course to generate different outcomes
- 3How to tell the difference between cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesisCleavage - cell sizes get smaller and there is a synchronous division
Gastrulation - cells move
Organogenesis - formation of organs - 4How is the genome translated into functionThe genome contains 25,000 protein coding genes which are transcribed into RNA and then translated into proteins with millions of variants possible.
- 5how large is the human genome3 x 10^9 base pairs
- 6how do we study how the genome directs proper developmentBy directly removing the function of a gene and studying the result of that on the phenotype of the animal
- 7How to determine the developmental function of a gene1. determine where in the embryo the gene is expressed
2. then you can remove the function of the gene (make a knockout)
3. people with the mutation can tell you about the function of the gene - 8Describe Holt-Oram syndromeHas a mutation of one copy of TBX5 that codes for a transcription factor. People usually have forelimb and heart defects
- 9Define haploinsufficiencyWhen one functional copy of a gene is not enough to provide sufficient protein for normal function
- 10what is WISHWhole-mount In Situ Hybridization
- 11define fertilizationthe fusion of sperm and egg to produce a zygote
- 12define cleavagerapid mitotic divisions
- 13define gastrulationcell movements that create the three germ layers
- 14define organogenesisproduction of tissues and organs from the germ layers
- 15define larval stage(in some species) sexually immature form that must undero metamorphosis to become a sexually mature adult
- 16gametogenesisformation and differentiation of germ cells that starts in the embryo, gametes differentiate in the adult
- 17what are the axes of the body (up, down, front, back)Anterior
Posterior
Ventral
Dorsal - 18what does the midsaggital plane dividethe body from left and right
- 19what does the transverse plane divideacts as a cross section dividing anterior and posterior
- 20what does the horizontal plane divideVentral and dorsal
- 21when is cleavage synchronouscleavage is synchronous in all cells during the early stages and then it becomes asynchronous
- 22what is the vegetal poleend with the highest amount of yolk
- 23what is gastrulationwhen the cells start to move in the embryo , defines where the axis of the body is. The three germ layers are also formed (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm), but most importantly the notochord forms
- 24what are the cells called in the cleavage stageBlastomere - a cell of the cleavage stage embryo
Morula - cleavage stage embryo when there is no cavity
Blastula - cleavage stage embryo when there is a cavity (blastocyst stage in mammals) - 25what are the cells called in the gastrulation stageGastrula - cells undergoing gastrulation
- 26What are the cells called in the organogenesis stageneurula - when the embryo is forming the neural tube
- 27what is the difference between meroblastic cleavage and holoblastic cleavagemeroblastic - the entire egg is not cleaved into cells (incomplete) usually due to large amount of yolk
holoblastic - the entire egg is cleaved into cells (entire egg becomes part of the embryo) (complete) - 28define cleavagerapid cell divisions divide the zygote cytoplasm into many progressively smaller cells with no increase in total vvolume
- 29what happens during organogenesisthe nervous system has been induced and the mesoderm is forming somites
- 30what controls metamorphosisthyroid hormones
- 31what is the role of yolk in cleavagethe yolk inhibits cleavage
- 32what is centrolecithala stage in meroblastic cleavage, in which the yolk is in the center of the egg
- 33what structure induces the nervous systemthe notochord
- 34what are the two basic cell types in the embryoepithelial cells - attached in a sheet
mesenchymal cells - individualized cells, individually motile/migratory - 35what is EMTepithelial to mesenchymal transformation (transition)
- 36what are the different types of cell movement during gastrulationInvagination
Involution
Ingression
Delamination
Epiboly - 37what is invaginationit is the infolding of a sheet of cells. It basically is the movement of cells from the outside to the inside
- 38what is involutionIt is the inward movement of the outer layer that spreads over the internal surface
- 39what is ingressionMigration of individual cells (mesenchymal) from the surface to the interior
- 40what is delaminationthe splitting of one sheet into two or more sheets. (formation of a new sheet of cells)
- 41what is epibolylayer of cells that spreads and covers another layer thats more inward to the embryo
- 42what are the stages of commitment during developmentspecification
determination
differentiation - 43what happens as we go from specification to differentiationpotency decreases
- 44what is specificationwhen a cell differentiates by itself (autonomously) and is committed to a given fate, but this commitment can be reversed (until signals or the environment changes)
- 45what is determinationthe commitment to a given fate is irreversible, and will continue on its path regardless of its location or placement with other cells
- 46what is differentiationdevelopment into a specialized cell, in a biochemical and functional level
- 47how to test for specification in a neutral environmentisolating cells and culturing them in a basic medium that doesn't influence development. If they differentiate to a specific cell type they are then specified
- 48what is autonomous specificationwhen blastomeres acquire determination factors from the egg cytoplasm
- 49what is conditional specificationwhen embryonic cells are specified by signals from their neighbouring cells
- 50what are trochoblastsciliated cells
- 51what happened in Hans Driesch's demonstration of conditional specificationtook a 4-cell sea urchin embryo, isolated each of the cells, and each cell generated a smaller, but normal, pluteus larva
- 52can an embryo have some cells that are conditionally specified and autonomously specifiedyes
- 53what happens if you remove cells from an embryothe remaining cells can regulate and compensate for the missing part
- 54define fatea cell's future path of differentiation in an undisturbed embryo
- 55when can you first make a fate map of an embryothat depends on the species
- 56what is a fate mapa representation of an embryo that shows which cells will form what structures or tissues
- 57fate maps of vertebrates show what similarities-the notochord forms in a central dorsal position
-precursors of neural system lie anterior
-Neural ectoderm surrounded by dorsal ectoderm - 58what is the site of ingressionthe path cells will follow as they migrate from exterior to interior
- 59describe autonomous specification of blastomeres(mosaic development)
isolated blastomere produce only part of the organism, like the tiles of a mosaic.
The blastomeres are already determined and therefore can't be regulated to form different cells
can make fate maps at early cleavage stages
In most invertebrates - 60describe conditional specification of blastomeres(regulative development)
blastomeres are totipotent
They can regulate their development to produce a complete organism. If the blastomeres are split into two units, they produce twins. I.e they can alter their fate
a fate map cannot be made of an early embryo of this type
The embryo can respond to removal of parts
in vertebrates and few invertebrates - 61define syncytiuma cytoplasm containing many nuclei. Cell membranes haven't formed between nuclei
- 62describe syncytial specificationspecification via interactions between cytoplasmic regions prior to cellularization of the blastoderm
Both autonomous and conditional specification are seen after cellularization
what body region forms depends on the ratios (concentration) of nanos to bicoid
high bicoid = head
in most insect classes - 63define morphogena long-range signaling molecule that forms a concentration gradient in the embyro and the specification of a cell depends on the concentration of the molecule
- 64what is bicoid and caudalThey are morphogens/ transcription factors/ and mRNAs for the head (bicoid) and bottom (caudal)
- 65what is the difference between a morphogen and a determinantDeterminant - influences cell fate in the cell in which it is found
Morphogen - influences the fates of other cells as it diffuses - 66why can bicoid and caudal be a transcription factor and be a signalling moleculebecause they aren't hindered by a cell membrane
- 67what are transcription factorsproteins regulating gene expression in which they either bind DNA or other proteins that bind DNA
- 68where are transcription factors locatedtypically in the nucleus
- 69how does a group of cells in one part of an embryo induce another group of cells to express a specific gene or set of geneswith secreted signals
- 70which expression is broader... target genes or mRNAtarget genes
- 71since all cells have the same chromosomes how could these chromosomes produce different cell typesthrough differential gene expression, in which only a portion of the genome is expressed in each cell
- 72what is SCNTsomatic cell nuclear transfer
or cloning - 73can determination or differentiation be overcomeyes, by somatic cell nuclear transfer
- 74what are pluripotent cellsthose that can form all the cell types of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
- 75how is somatic cell nuclear transfer completed-prick oocyte with needle to mimic fertilization
- remove chromosomes and mitotic spindle
- donor nucleus inserted into enucleated egg - 76What did John Gurdon's experiments with nuclei from differentiated cells accomplishit showed that nuclei from differentiated cells could be reprogrammed to be pluripotent
They were able to conclude that there was no loss, inactivation, or permanent change to chromosomal genes, but adults couldn't reach sexual maturity - 77what was the efficiency for the cloning experiments (Dolly) and what was the key to be successfulefficiency was 1 in 434 oocytes
Use cells that aren't actively dividing as donors and unfertilized eggs as recipients - 78how to clone monkeys with fetal cellsculture of fetal fibroblast + donor enucleated oocyte
Fusion + activation
Add histone demethylase
embryo transfer to surrogate - 79human embryos can be cloned using SCNT to what stageblastocyst stage
- 80what are two ways to get pluripotent cellssomatic cell nuclear transfer
and
direct reprogramming - 81what is the effect caffeine has on cellsIt keeps cells in the G1 phase, to prevent premature completion of meiosis
- 82what does acetylation of histone tails dodisrupt formation of nucleosome assemblages by uncondensing nucleosomes
- 83what does methylation of histone tails dostabilize the formation of nucleosome assemblage by condensing nucleosomes
- 84what happens when lysine is acetylatedit neutralizes the positive charge, loosening its attraction to DNA, making it more accessible for transcription factors
- 85what are polycomb proteinsrepressing proteins
- 86what are trithorax proteinsactivating proteins
- 87what are methylated lysines of histone tails bounded bypolycomb and trithorax proteins
- 88Which methylated lysine residues are associated with gene activation4, 38, 79
- 89Which methylated lysine residues are associated with gene repression9 and 27
- 90how to produce B-globin and hemoglobin1. transcription of the B-globin gene
2. Post-translational modification and remove introns
3. process nuclear RNA to mRNA
4. translation to encode the B-globin protein
4. modify and complex with a a-globin and heme to become an active hemoglobin - 91how can a bridge be formed between the enhancer and the promotervia transcription factors, some bind to the enhancer and some to the promoter. Other transcription factors bind to the transcription factors already bound, which forms a loop
- 92What transcription factor needs to bind the promoter for the promoter to be usedGATA1
- 93which transcription factor forms the link in the bridge between the promoter and enhancerLbd1
- 94What is an enhancerA non-coding DNA sequence that binds transcription factors and activates transcription of a gene in cis, some enhancers control the expression of a gene. They are also tissue specific
- 95describe enhancer modularitytranscription factors bind to their specific enhancer, recruits the mediator, stabilize RNA PII, modify nucleosomes in the region of the promoter
- 96what is able to show where in the body a gene is expressedlacZ reporter gene binds to enhancers and codes for the B-galactosidase, in which its activity produces a blue colour
- 97what are some of the major transcription factor familiesHox
POU
Lim
Pax
Zinc finger
Sry-Sox - 98what are the three major domains of transcription factorsDNA binding domain
trans-activating domain
protein-protein interaction domain - 99What can silence transcriptionDNA methylation on the promoter before the gene
- 100Describe MeCP2A binding protein that recognizes methylated cytosines, binds to DNA and recruits either histone deactylase or histone methyltransferases both which promote tight packing of DNA and repress gene expression. It can also recruit Dnmt3
- 101What happens if MeCP2 is mutatedIt can cause Rett syndrome
- 102what is Rett syndromea severe debilitating neurological disorder that affects girls
- 103what are the two DNA methyltransferasesDnmt3 - places methyl group on unmethylated cytosines
Dnmt1 - recognizes methylated C's on one strand and methylates the C's on the other strand - 104How can a wide variety of proteins be produced from a single geneAlternative splicing
- 105What is Dscamit can produce many different proteins through alternative nRNA splicing
- 106what are cadherinstransmembrane proteins that segregate cell types in the embryo
- 107describe epithelial cellssort by the type of cadherin present
they can transition to mesenchymal cells (EMT) when E-cadherin is repressed - 108what repressed E-cadherinSLUG transcription factor
- 109what are the two signalling pathways for cellsJuxtacrine signalling: membrane receptors bind to proteins in the ECM or directly to other membrane receptors (adjacent)
Paracrine signalling: long range signalling, in which signaling proteins (ligand) are secreted - 110what is the two types of binding between adjacent cells via receptorshomophilic binding - same proteins (receptors) from each cell
Heterophilic binding - different proteins (receptors) from each cell - 111describe re-aggregation of cellscells were dissociated and mixed together, they then segregated into their types of cells
- 112describe how cells adhere to each otherCadherins from each cell link together while catenins connect the cadherins to actin filaments
- 113describe EMTepithelial mesenchymal transition. Epithelial cells usually attached via adherens junction (with cadherin, catenin, actin rings). They are attached to the basal lamina via integrins. Paracrine factors can repress expression of certain cell components, cauing the lose of attachment to basal lamina and adhesion with other cells
- 114what is the important of various types of cadherinsTo use the correct type for the correct morphogenesis
differential cadherin expression is needed for the neural tube to separate from the surface ectoderm - 115what is inductionthe process by which one cell population influences the development of neighbouring cells via interactions at close range
- 116in what cases can the optic vesicle not induce lens formation1. if ectoderm is not competent
2. optic vesicle removed
3. other tissue than optic vesicle is implanted - 117describe induction of the lens by paracrine factors of the optic vesicleOptic vesicle secretes fgf8 and BMP4 (paracrine factors) that induce synthesis of SOX transcription factors. However, the ectoderm must express Pax6 in order to be competent
- 118what is aniridiathe lack of an iris
- 119when will you not have lens induction in terms of pax6when pax6 is completely absent in the surface ectoderm
- 120can inducer molecules be either paracrine factors or morphogensthey are more often paracrine factors and only some are morphogens
- 121what are morphogensdiffusable molecules that determine fate of a cell by their concentration
- 122In what ways can induction occurboth juxtacrine and paracrine signalling
- 123what are the four most prominent families of paracrine factors during developmentFGFs and RTK ligands
hedgehog proteins
WNT proteins
TGF-B superfamily proteins (BMPs and SMAD1,2,3,5 and Activin, and Nodal) - 124How many different fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) ligands are theremore than 20
- 125Describe the RTK signal transduction pathwayThe transmembrane protein (receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK)) gets bound and activated by a FGF, resulting in RTK dimerizing (phosphorylation). SOS adaptor protein then activates GEF, which activates RAS by phosphorylating the bound GDP. GAP then hydrolyses the phosphate bond of RAS, returning it to inactive state. RAS activates FAR, which then activates MEK, which then activates ERK. ERK then alters gene expression by activating/phosphorylating transcription factors
- 126In the RTK signal transduction pathway where is each molecule locatedextracellular - Ligand (FGF) and RTK
Cytoplasm - RTK, SOS, GEF, RAS, RAF, GAP, MEK
nucleus - ERK, transcription factor - 127Describe the JAK-STAT pathwaygene for casein gets activated
Prolactin binds/dimerizes the prolactin receptors. The attached JAK2 proteins phosphorylate each other and the dimerized receptors. Activated receptors add a phosphate group to the tyrosine residue (Y) of a STAT5. STAT5 then dimerizes and is translocated to the nucleus, which binds to DNA with other transcription factors and activates transcription of the casein gene - 128what pathways can FGFs activateRTK signal transduction
and
JAK-STAT - 129what is thanatophoric dysplasiaa mutation that occurs in the gene for FgfR3 which causes premature activation of the STAT pathway and the production of phosphorylated STAT1 protein. The transcription causes premature termination of chondrocyte cell division
- 130What is achondroplasiaHeterozygous gain-of-function of FGFR3 which causes dwarfism. The most common mutation is a glycine to an arginine. The receptor signals in the absence of a ligand
- 131Describe the Hedgehog signal transduction pathway when hedgehog bindsHedgehog (ligand) binds to patched protein receptor, which allows for Smoothened to releases Ci or Gli which inactivates the cleavage proteins PKA and Slimb. Ci enters nucleus and acts as a trascriptional activator
- 132describe hedgehog signal transduction pathway when hedgehog doesn't bindPatched protein inhibits Smoothened. PKA and Slminb phosphorylate Ci/Gli which then gets cleaved, and then repressed gene expression
- 133what is cyclopiawhen hedgehog signaling is inhibited
creates one eye - 134what is sonic hedgehogs functionnervous system, gut, limb buds
it also induces the adjacent part of the somites to form vertebrae - 135describe how SHH causes somites to become vertebraeSHH from the notochord induces somites to become sclerotome, which then becomes vertebrae
- 136what is Wnt4 necessary forkidney development and female sex determination
- 137what happens without wnt4kidneys fail to develop
Ovary starts producing testosterone and becomes surrounded by a modified male duct system - 138Describe the canonical Wnt pathway when Wnt is boundWnt binds to its receptor, member of the frizzled family and in combination with LRP5/6 and Lgr receptors. Frizzled then activates disheveled which inhibits glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). Wnt signal frees B-catenin to associate with it's cofactors LEF or TCF and become an active transcription factor
- 139Describe the canonical Wnt pathway when Wnt is not boundB-catenin can interact with a complex of proteins (GSK3, APC, and Axin) that target Wnt for protein degredation in the proteasome. GSK3 is also active and prevents the dissociation of B-catenin from the APC protein.
- 140describe the non-canonical pathway for WntWnt proteins signal through Frizzled to activate Disheveled, which leads to activation of Rho GTPases (Rac and RhoA). These GTPases coordinate changes in the cytoskeleton and through janus kinase (JNK) to regulate gene expression
- 141which pathway includes B-cateninthe canonical pathway of Wnt signaling
- 142How many different WNTs are in humans19
- 143what is WNT signaling required forplanar cell polarity (PCP)
- 144what is planar cell polaritywhen cells are asymmetric within the plane of an epithelium. Polarity along the axis that is perpendicular to the apical/basal axis. This is done through th WNT/PCP pathway
- 145what are the major subdivisions of the TGF-B superfamily and what transcription factors do they useBMP's
and all other members
SMADs - transcription factors - 146describe the Nodal pathway of the SMAD pathwayActivation complex formed by binding the ligand (TGF-B, activin, nodal) by the type I and II receptors, which then the type II receptor phosphorylates the type I receptor on serine or threonine residues. The type I receptor then phosphorylates SMAD2,3, which dimerizes, complexes with SMAD4, and acts as a transcription factor
- 147describe the BMP pathway of the SMAD pathwayActivation complex formed by binding the ligand (BMP) by the type I and II receptors, which then the type II receptor phosphorylates the type I receptor on serine or threonine residues. The type I receptor then phosphorylates SMAD1,5, which dimerizes, complexes with SMAD4, and acts as a transcription factor
- 148Describe notch signalingCSL transcription factor is on the enhancer of notch regulated genes and binds repressors of transcription. A ligand (delta, jagged, or serrate) binds to extracellular domain of notch protein of adjacent cell, which changes shape of intracellular domain of notch, which activates a protease. The protease cleaves notch allowing the intracellular region of notch to enter the nucleus and bind the CSL transcription factor. Notch then binds activvators of transcription (p300)
- 149what are stem cellscells that divide to replicate themselves and produce daughter cells that can differentiate into other cell types
- 150what is potencyThe diversity of cell types that a stem cell can generate
- 151what is the most potent stem celltotipotent
- 152what is the second most potent stem cellpluripotent
- 153what is totipotent stem cellsthey can generate all the cell types of the embryo and extra-embryonic tissues
- 154what are the extra-embryonic tissuesplacenta, chorion, amnion, and the yolk sac
- 155what is a pluripotent stem cellgenerate all the cell of the embryo, but not the extra-embryonic tissues
- 156when are blastomeres totipotent in humansday 2
- 157when are inner cell mass cells pluripotentat the blastocyst stage or day 5
- 158what is the stem cell concept based onasymmetric cell division
- 159What is single-cell asymmetry or asymmetric cell divisionA stem cell that can make more stem cells, while also producing cells that commit to differentiation
- 160what is population asymmetry or symmetrical differentiation/renewingStem cell divides symmetrically to produce either two stem cells or two committed cells
- 161what is adult stem cell lineageIn many organs, stem cells pass from multipotent stem cells to committed stem cells to a progenitor or transit-amplifying cells to a differentiated cell
- 162what are the potency of cells called from most potent to least potent and their cell formtotipotent - zygote
pluripotent - embryonic
multipotent - multipotent
limited differentiation potential - neuronal progenitor
limited division potential - differentiating neuronal precursors
functional nonmitotic neuron - differentiated cells - 163Describe HSCsHematopoietic stem cells - blood forming multipotent stem cells. They can divide into either a lymphoid progenitor cell or myeloid progenitor cell
- 164what cells can lymphoid progenitor cells becomenatural killer (NK) cells
T lymphocytes
B lymphocytes - 165what cells can myeloid progenitor cells becomeNeutrophil
Basophil
Eosinophil
Monocyte/macrophage
Platelets
Red blood cells - 166what structure becomes the embryothe inner cell mass
- 167what are the three principal cell types in a blastocysttrophectoderm - outer wall
ICM - mass on the inside
Primitive endoderm- forms on the ICM - 168where do you get pluripotent embryonic stem cellsfrom blastomeres of the inner cell mass
- 169what are two kinds of pluripotent stem cellsblastocysts from the inner cell mass (ICM)
primordial germ cells - 170what is the difference of Gurdon's method and Yamanak's method to reprogram differentiated cells to a pluripotent stateGurdon's method requires an oocyte
- 171what did Yamanaka need to cause differentiated cells to be reprogrammedFour defined factors (all of which are transcription factors) Oct3/4, c-Myc, Sox2, Klf4
- 172what are the steps Yamanaka used to reprogram a differentiated celltake the four transcription factors, virally insert them into differentiated fibroblasts, and they will dedifferentiate into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), which can give rise to the germ layers
- 173what are the steps Gurdon took to reprogram a differentiated cellEliminated nucleus of frog egg, replaced it with nucleus of specialized cell from tadpole
- 174what is the advantage of iPS cellsthey can be from the patient themselves
Don't have to use an oocyte or embryo - 175what is the protocol for curing human diseases in a mouse1. take tail-tip fibroblasts are taken (mouse needs to have the human alleles for the disease not mouse alleles)
2. cells cultured and infected with virus and Yamanaka's transcription factors
3. iPS cells are given DNA containing wild-type allele of human globin (HbA)
4. embryos allowed to differentiate
5. hematopoietic progenitor and stem cells from are injected back into mouse to cure it - 176what are adult stem cellspopulation of stem cells within adult tissue that are continually renewed
- 177what is stem cell nichea microenvironment within a tissue that maintains adult stem cells in an undifferentiated state
- 178what is the niche of mesenchymal stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, sparmatogoniabone marrow, adipose tissue, heart, placenta, umbilical cord
bone marrow
testes - 179What are villi composed ofmade up of enterocytes (absorptive cells), CBCC (crypt base columnar cells), crypt (indentation of pits)
- 180what is anoikisapoptosis when epithelial cells detach from the sheet of villi
- 181What are the regions that epithelial cells are divided into in the villusat the base of the crypt is the ISC, then the proliferative zone with transit amplfying cells, and then the differentiation zone with the maturation of epithelial cell types
- 182What surrounds the base of the crypt and what is its functionPericryptal stromal cells (mesenchymal cells) - secrete morphogenic gradients of Wnt2b and Bmp4, which regulate stemness and differentiation
- 183where is Wnt2b and Bmp4 strongestWnt2b is strongest at base of crypt
Bmp4 is strongest at tip of crypt - 184what are the differentiated cell types of the small intestine epithelium and what do they doEnterocytes - absorptive cells
Enteroendecrine cells - produce hormones
Goblet cells - secrete mucus
Paneth cells - produce antimicrobial molecules - 185what do paneth cells dosecrete Wnt3a and express DII4, which stimulate proliferation of Lrg5+ CCBC via activation of the notch intracellular domain (NICD)
- 186what receptors do CBCC haveA notch receptor, which is a frizzle (canonical process)
- 187what is the role of R-spondins (RSPOs) and LGR5LGR5 is the receptor for R-spondins and together prevent the degradation of the frizzled/WNT complex
- 188what are the subniches of HSCEndosteal and perivascular
- 189what is the endosteal nicheHSCs in the endosteal are adhered to osteoblasts and are long-term. They are typically in the quiescent state. Longer cycles of renewal
- 190what is the perivascular nicheHSCs in the perivascular are associated with blood vessels at oxygen rich pores, they are short-term active. Shorter cycles of renewal
- 191what is the function of CXCL12/SDF1It is secreted by several cells (CAR and MSCs). Loss of CXCL12 in CAR causes movement of hematopoietic progenitor cells into the bloodstream, whereas loss in MSCs cause reductions in HSCs
- 192what is a chimerahalf male half female
- 193how are XY sex-reversed females, in what casesdeletion/mutation of SRY
Haploinsufficiency of SOX9 - 194how are XX sex-reversed males, in what casesTranslocation of SRY to another chromosome
Mutation of Rspo1 - 195what forms from the intermediate mesodermthe gonads
- 196what are the four main categories of mesodermIntermediate mesoderm, Chorda-mesoderm, paraxial mesoderm, and lateral plate mesoderm
- 197what is sex determination dependent onsomatic cells of the gonads
- 198what degenerates the mullerian ductAnti-mullerian factor
- 199what degenerates the wolffian ductno testosterone
- 200what is primary sex determinationspecification and differentiation of the gonads as either ovaries or testes
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- 403 cmmb 403 Flashcards on Lectures sept 8- oct 15, created by Chelsea Scheck on 10/09/2021.
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