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Flashcards

Chapter 1: Introduction to Criminal Behaviour

Suppi N Criminology English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1JUST-WORLD HYPOTHESIS (LERNER & MILLER, 1980)The belief that things do not happen to people without a reason that is closely related to their own actions
  2. 2JUST-WORLD HYPOTHESIS (LERNER & MILLER, 1980)They developed scales to measure one’s just-world orientation
    E.g. Just-Worlder scale scores indicate favour of capital punishment and unsupportive of social programs for under-priviledged groups
  3. 3GENERAL JUST-WORLD VS PERSONAL JUST-WORLDPERSONAL
    Personal Just-World: "I usually get what I deserve"
    Considered adaptive and helpful in coping with dire circumstances in one’s life
  4. 4GENERAL JUST-WORLD VS PERSONAL JUST-WORLDGENERAL
    Associated with less compassion for others and even a derogation of victims of crime
  5. 5THEORY VERIFICATION AND FALSIFICATIONIf the theory is not verified—indeed, if any of its propositions is not verified—the end
    result is falsification (Popper, 1968)
    E.g. a theory of CSA = all child sex offenders were victims of CSA -> one non-abused offender encountered -> FALSIFIED
  6. 6MODELSA graphic representation of a theory or a concept, designed to enhance its understanding
  7. 7CESARE BECCARIAIndividuals are masters
    of their fate, the possessors of free will and choice
    Human behaviour -> choice made weighing pleasure vs pain or punishment expected
  8. 8CESARE BACCARIA (CLASSICAL THEORY/ DETERRENCE THEORY)To reduce or stop offending -> punishment should be swift, certain, severe -> deter people from crime (pleasurable)
  9. 9POSITIVIST THEORY (DETERMINISM)Antecedents determine how we will act.
    Biological antecedents: sex, race, size of brain
    Cesare Lombroso
  10. 10POSITIVIST THEORY (DETERMINISM)More emphasis on social antecedents: negative early life experiences or lack of educational opportunity
  11. 11POSITIVIST THEORY (DETERMINISM)Human behaviour is governed by causal laws, and free will is undermined
    E.g. support services for
    youth believed to be at risk of engaging in crime
  12. 12THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVESConformity Perspective
    Views humans as creatures of conformity who want to do the “right” thing
    Foundation of humanistic perspectives
    In tuned with positive psychology
  13. 13CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEStrain Theory
    Humans -> fundamentally conforming beings, strongly influenced by values and attitudes of society they live in
  14. 14CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEAccumulation of wealth or status
    is important, represents symbols that all members should strive for
    BUT
    Not everyone can do so (education, social network, personal contacts, and family influence)
  15. 15CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEBUT
    Not everyone can do so (education, social network, personal contacts, and family influence)
  16. 16CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEHENCE
    Strain between the goals of wealth and power and the means for reaching them develops
    individuals experiencing a high level of this strain are forced to decide whether to violate norms
    and laws to attain some of this sought-after wealth or power, or give up on their dream and go through the motions, withdraw, or rebel.
  17. 17CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEindividuals experiencing a high level of this strain -> decide whether to violate norms and laws -> attain some of this sought-after wealth or power
    OR
    Give up on their dream and go through the motions, withdraw, or rebel.
  18. 18CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEThe rich can also be affected because of the desire to increase wealth + power + status etc.
  19. 19CONFORMITY PERSPECTIVEAgnew (1992) sees strains as events and conditions that are disliked by individuals.
    Inability to achieve one’s goals was only one such condition; others lose something of
    value, treated negatively by others (2006)
  20. 20NONCONFORMIST PERSPECTIVEHumans
    Undisciplined creatures, would commit crime without rules and regulations, "unruly", deviant, need to be held in check
  21. 21NONCONFORMIST PERSPECTIVEBUT
    Biological features or
    deficiencies in some individuals predispose them to antisocial behaviour, like aggressive actions.
  22. 22NONCONFORMIST PERSPECTIVEImportance of biological influences on behaviour, not as exclusive determinants of behaviour but rather as factors
    AND
    May present at birth or during formative years
  23. 23NONCONFORMIST PERSPECTIVEALSO
    Certain behaviors, such as aggressive actions, have their genesis in malnutrition and exposure to harmful elements in the environment.
  24. 24SOCIAL CONTROL THEORYCrime and delinquency -> Individual’s ties to the conventional order or normative standards are weak or largely non-existent
  25. 25SOCIAL CONTROL THEORYHuman Nature
    Fundamentally "bad", "antisocial" or at least "imperfect"
    These innate tendencies must be CONTROLLED by society
  26. 26GENERAL THEORY OF CRIME (GTC) OR SELF-CONTROL THEORY (SCT)Deficit
    of self-control or self-regulation -> explaining crime and delinquency
  27. 27SELF-CONTROL THEORY (SCT)CONTROVERSIAL:
    Contends that self-control is a stable trait that is fully in place
    in childhood, usually by the age of eight and is not likely to change thereafter.
  28. 28SELF-CONTROL THEORY (SCT)Tested by researchers, self-control can develop at later ages
  29. 29LEARNING PERSPECTIVEHumans
    Born neutral ( x conforming, x unruly)
    Subject to developmental changes throughout life course
  30. 30LEARNING PERSPECTIVEHumans learn virtually all their behavioUr, beliefs, and tendencies from the social environment
    Social Learning Theory and Differential Association Theory (Sutherland, 1947)
  31. 31SOCIAL LEARNING THEORYEmphasizes such concepts as
    imitation of models and reinforcements one gains from one’s behaviour
  32. 32DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORYCriminal behaviour + social behaviour is learned, through social interactions with other people
    NOT emotional disturbance, mental illness, or innate qualities of
    “goodness” or “badness"
  33. 33DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY"Bad company promotes bad behaviour"
  34. 34EMERGING ADULTHOOD18 - 25 years old
    Independent from parental, institutional controls but searching for self-identity
    Carefree, exploring options but struggling to achieve adult status
  35. 35EMERGING ADULTHOODNot settled on a career or chosen partner
    Research related to antisocial behaviour?
  36. 36DEVELOPMENTAL CRIMINOLOGISTSLife pathways to crime, antisocial activity in early stages or adolescence/later stages
    Addressing risk factors, encouraging protective factors
  37. 37DEVELOPMENTAL CRIMINOLOGISTSGirls, women pathways might differ in pathways of boys, men (researchers differ on extent)
    Cultural groups may differ in pathways to crime (but not studied as intensely as gender)
  38. 38SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYDemographic + group variables to crime
    Variables = age, race, gender, socioeconomic status, ethnic-cultural affiliation etc. --> certain categories and patterns of crime
  39. 39SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYConclusions:
    Juveniles as a group are overrepresented in nonviolent property offenses
    Young black males from disadvantaged backgrounds --> overrepresented as perpetrators + victims of homicide
  40. 40SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYConclusions:
    White males are overrepresented --> political and corporate crimes
  41. 41SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYSituational or Environmental Factors
    Most conducive to criminal action -->
    - Time
    - Place
    - Weapons used
    - Circumstances surrounding the crime
  42. 42STRUCTURALISTLooks at the underlying foundation of society:
    - Lack of employment
    - Lack of educational activities
    - Quality of health services offered in a community
  43. 43CULTURALISTView the values and patterns of living within a given group of people
  44. 44DISTRIBUTION OF POWERHow is crime is defined?
    How are laws enforced?
    Sale of “street” drugs has been monitored more closely than sale of “suite” drugs
    EQUALLY potent though
  45. 45DISTRIBUTION OF POWERCorporate officials
    Allowing environmental and workplace hazards that produce serious harm—often not defined as crimes
  46. 46DISTRIBUTION OF POWERPolitical crime (corruption, bribery, and abuse of power)
  47. 47SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYAddressing the underlying social conditions --> encourages criminal behaviour
    - Inequities in educational and
    - Employment opportunities
  48. 48CONFLICT THEORIES IN SOCIOLOGYHow crime is defined?
    Who is subject to punishment?
    Draw attention to crimes of the rich and powerful!
  49. 49PSYCHOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYSCIENCE of the BEHAVIOUR and MENTAL PROCESSES of the PERSON who COMMITS CRIME
  50. 50PSYCHOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGYFocuses on INDIVIDUAL criminal behaviour— how it is
    Acquired
    Evoked
    Maintained
    Modified
  51. 51PSYCHOLOGY OF CRIMESocial and personality influences on criminal behaviour + the mental processes that mediate that behaviour
  52. 52PERSONALITY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR- Biological influences
    - Psychological traits
    - Cognitive features of the human being -->
    Identified as important in the mediation and control of behaviour
  53. 53COGNITIVE APPROACHCognitions --> attitudes + beliefs + values + thoughts people hold
    ABOUT
    the social environment + interrelations + human nature + themselves
  54. 54COGNITIVE APPROACHSerious Criminal Offenders:
    Cognitions are often DISTORTED
  55. 55DISTORTED COGNITIONSE.g of cognitions that can lead to criminal activity:
    Beliefs that children must be severely
    physically disciplined
    Victims are not really hurt by fraud or burglary are good examples
  56. 56DISTORTED COGNITIONSPrejudice
    Erroneous generalizations + oversimplification about others
    E.g. Hate or bias crimes
  57. 57DISTORTED COGNITIONSSerial rapists:
    May only assault victims who they perceive “deserve it.”
    Some even persuade themselves
    that they are not harming their victims
  58. 58DISTORTED COGNITIONSWhite-collar offenders
    Sometimes justify their crimes as what they have to do in order to stay in business
  59. 59BIOLOGICAL OR NEUROLOGICAL APPROACHPsychologists + sociologists finding links between biology (+ neuropsychology) and human behaviour
    Often focuses on aggression and violent behavior
  60. 60BIOLOGICAL OR NEUROLOGICAL APPROACHNeurologists study the extents that
    damage,
    deficits,
    or abnormality of the brain --> antisocial behaviour, particularly violent behaviour
  61. 61BIOLOGICAL OR NEUROLOGICAL APPROACHTraumatic brain injury (TBI) [e.g. traffic accident]
    May produce personality changes, including increased aggressive behaviour
  62. 62DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHExamines the CHANGES and INFLUENCES across a person’s LIFETIME
    |
    CONTRIBUTE to the formation of ANTISOCIAL AND CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR
    |
    RISK FACTORS
  63. 63DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHRISK FACTORS
    E.g. Poor nutrition
    Loss of a parent
    Early school failure
    Substandard housing
  64. 64DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHInfluences that provide individuals with a buffer against the risk factors
    |
    PROTECTIVE FACTORS
  65. 65DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHPROTECTIVE FACTORS
    E.g. A caring adult mentor
    Good social skills
  66. 66DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHGOALS:
    Identify changes and influences occurring across the developmental pathways of life
    |
    Person from becoming caring, sensitive, and prosocial
  67. 67DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHGOALS:
    Steer a person away
    from a life of persistent and serious antisocial behaviour
    |
    Gain invaluable information about how
    to prevent and change delinquent and criminal behaviour
  68. 68TRAIT APPROACHA TRAIT or DISPOSITION
    |
    Relatively stable and enduring tendency to behave in a particular way
    |
    Distinguishes one person from another
  69. 69TRAIT APPROACHPsychologists
    |
    Understand human behaviour
    |
    Searching for stable consistent personality dispositions or traits that exerted widely generalized effects on behaviour
  70. 70TRAIT APPROACHESE.g.
    Extroverted = Consistent tendency to socialize and meet others
    Introverted = Shy and with a tendency to socialize with only very close
    friends
  71. 71TRAIT APPROACHES"Callous-unemotional traits"
    |
    Associated with psychopaths
    |
    individuals who may (and may not) be responsible for many
    serious crimes
  72. 72TRAIT APPROACHES"Callous-unemotional traits"
    |
    Lack of empathy and concern for the welfare of others
    |
    Often lead to a persistent and aggressive pattern of antisocial behaviour
  73. 73TRAIT APPROACHESNotable: Self-control
  74. 74TRAIT APPROACHESPeople show consistent behaviour across time and place
    |
    These behaviours characterize personality
  75. 75TRAIT APPROACHESPsychologists' assumption:
    Should search for the personality traits or variables underlying criminal behaviour
    |
    Paid less attention to environment or situation
  76. 76TRAIT APPROACHESPersonality variables identified
    |
    Possible to DETERMINE and PREDICT which individual was MOST LIKELY TO ENGAGE
    in criminal behaviour
  77. 77TRAIT APPROACHESHOWEVER:
    A search for any SINGLE personality type of the criminal has not been fruitful
  78. 78TRAIT APPROACHESTrait psychology standing alone has lost favour
    |
    Some aspects of this approach have survived
  79. 79PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYPsychologists --> Have
    earned a PhD, a PsyD, or an EdD
    Psychiatrists --> first earn a medical degree (MD or a DO), complete a
    medical internship like other physicians
  80. 80PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYBiology is receiving much more attention in the science of behaviour
    |
    Increasingly more psychologists today pursue training that is more biologically focused
  81. 81PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYClinical neuropsychologists
    |
    Receive extensive training in the NEUROLOGICAL and COGNITIVE aspects of injury and disease
  82. 82PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYPsychiatrists --> Able to prescribe drugs, most often psychoactive drugs
    “Medical psychologists" --> Psychologists with specified training to prescribe psychoactive drugs
  83. 83PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYLull in additional efforts to gain
    the privileges
    |
    BUT most psychologists
    in favour of extending privileges
    to those who want them and are suitably trained
  84. 84PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYBECAUSE:
    Would increase the availability of mental health services for individuals who might not otherwise access them
  85. 85PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYBUT:
    Some worry that this could lead to a heavier reliance on medication for the treatment of mental disorder than is warranted
  86. 86PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYTRADITIONALLY followed the Freudian, PSYCHOANALYTIC or PSYCHODYNAMIC tradition
  87. 87PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYSigmund Freud --> Freudians
    Contemporary psychoanalysts
    |
    Follow MODIFIED version of the orthodox Freudian position, called NEO-FREUDIANS
  88. 88PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYOther psychoanalysts, different from Freud: ALFRED ADLER, CARL JUNG
    RECENT TIMES: ERIK ERIKSON
  89. 89PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYERIK ERIKSON:
    A theory
    of development that included eight sequential stages
  90. 90PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYEgo identity
    |
    Gradually achieved by facing POSITIVE GOALS and NEGATIVE RISKS during EIGHT STAGES across the life span
  91. 91PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYDegree of achievement in ego identity
    |
    May influence the tendency to commit crime
  92. 92PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYContemporary psychiatrists
    |
    Less likely to be
    psychoanalytic in orientation
    |
    Research based, work in teams with psychologists and other MH professionals
  93. 93PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYPsychiatrists --> influenced by the medical model of mental illness
    |
    DSM-5 or ICD
  94. 94PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERSSOME DIAGNOSES are associated with SPECIFIC types of crimes
    |
    DOES NOT MEAN these mental disorders are more crime prone than those not so diagnosed
  95. 95PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYWhen crime is committed by individuals with mental disorders
    |
    MOST LIKELY cuz of other risk factors (substance abuse or past violent behaviour prior to mental disorder) were present
  96. 96PSYCHIATRIC CRIMINOLOGYResearchers
    |
    est. that < 10 percent of the crime committed by mentally disordered individuals was a product of their illness
  97. 97DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMENo universal agreement as to what group or groups should be targeted for study
    Only the convicted and incarcerated? Or committed crime but only arrested?
  98. 98DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMESome arrested were not truly guilty
    |
    Innocents are sometimes convicted and sent to prison
  99. 99DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMEHow can we include individuals who VIOLATE the law but ESCAPE DETECTION?
  100. 100DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMEOR
    Those who COME TO ATTENTION of law enforcement officials but NEVER ARRESTED OR CHARGED because they RECEIVE FAVOURABLE TREATMENT?
  101. 101DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMEMany actions that qualify as crimes are not handled by the criminal justice system
    |
    E.g. e, financial exploitation, physical abuse of the elderly --> referred
    to social service agencies instead
  102. 102DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMEStudying crime and criminal behaviour presents many problems for social scientists
    |
    Subjects of study are most typically captive (e.g. prisoners or delinquents in institutions)
  103. 103DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMENot necessarily representative of the TRUE criminal population
    |
    The universe of crime itself defies any attempt at determining “how much” occurs
  104. 104DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMEVarious methods have been used to do this
    |
    None provides sufficient and comprehensive information
  105. 105DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMECrime is usually measured in one of the following three ways, and none is perfect:
    Official police reports of reported crime and arrests [FBI, Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), National Incident-Based Reporting Systems (NIBRS)]
  106. 106DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMESelf-report (SR) studies --> members of a sample population are asked what offenses they have committed and how often
  107. 107DEFINING AND MEASURING CRIMENational or regional victimization studies
    |
    Samples a population of households or businesses asking respondents whether and how often they have been victims of specified crimes
  108. 108UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMFBI’s UCR compiled since 1930 is the most cited source of U.S. crime statistics
    |
    Annual document containing accounts of crimes known to police and information on arrests received on a voluntary basis from local and state law enforcement agencies
  109. 109UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMFederal law enforcement agencies do not report through the traditional UCR Program
    |
    They do through the NIBRS
  110. 110UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUCR program is the only major data source permitting a comparison of national data broken down by
    age
    sex
    race
    offense
  111. 111UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMSummary reporting system (SRS)
    |
    Which provides basic statistics on crimes that are of most concern
  112. 112UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMSupplementary Homicide Report
    |
    Contains data on:
    Victim and offender demographics
    Offender–victim relationship
    Weapon used
    Circumstances surrounding the homicide
  113. 113UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMFBI provides special reports
    |
    Hate crimes
    Campus crimes
    Law enforcement officers killed in the line of duty
    |
    Also prepared to cover 9/11
  114. 114UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMCrimes are divided into two major groups
    |
    Part I and Part II crimes
  115. 115UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMEven though de-emphasized
    |
    Still used periodically because it's convenient way to distinguish the offenses + gather data for each group
  116. 116UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUntil approx. 2004
    |
    Part I --> Index crimes
    |
    Divided into violent and property
    offenses
  117. 117UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMViolent crime:
    Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter Rape
    Robbery
    Aggravated assault
  118. 118UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMDefinition of rape broadened to SPECIFY PARTICULAR ACTIONS and to INCLUDE MALES as victims
    |
    Change is recent, some
    law enforcement agencies --> old or “legacy” definition in reporting crimes
  119. 119UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMProperty crimes:
    Burglary
    Larceny-theft
    Motor vehicle theft
    Arson
  120. 120UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMPrimary objective of the offender in property crime
    |
    Taking or destruction of money or property
  121. 121UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMArson --> Can include destruction of property but also loss of life/serious injury
    |
    Note: Only arsons known to be wilfully or maliciously set are included; fires of suspicious origins are not
  122. 122UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMThese eight crimes --> UCR provides information on the crime known to police
    |
    Reported crime or crimes they have observed in progress + arrests
  123. 123UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMIn order to appear in
    the UCR as one of the eight dominant
    |
    Requirements:
    Experienced by the victim or observed by someone else
    Defined as a crime by the victim or the observer
  124. 124UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMIn order to appear in
    the UCR as one of the eight dominant
    |
    Requirements:
    In some way become known to a law enforcement agency as a crime
    Be defined by that law enforcement agency as a crime
  125. 125UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMIn order to appear in
    the UCR as one of the eight dominant
    |
    Requirements:
    Be accurately recorded by the law enforcement agency
    Be reported to the FBI compilation centre
  126. 126UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUCR provides CRIME RATE data on only these eight crimes
    |
    CRIME RATE is the percentage of crime known to police per 100,000 population
  127. 127UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUCR keeps track of trends in offending
    |
    The FBI was able to report that the
    2013 murder figure represented an 18.3 percent decrease since 2004
  128. 128UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMThe decrease in crime since 2004 is found for all major crimes
    |
    Often does not come to public attention
    |
    Decrease in crime is even more noticeable compared to the early 1990s, a high-crime period in the US
  129. 129UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMFor all OTHER offenses
    |
    Only ARREST data included in UCR
    |
    Victim reports SIMPLE assault --> if perp is NOT LOCATED, the assault WON'T be included in CRIME RATE
  130. 130UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMHowever, ARREST of ONE OR MORE individuals for that simple assault would appear in the UCR
    |
    AGGRAVATED assault would be included in the crime rate
  131. 131UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMLarceny-theft
    |
    Comprises approximately 60 percent of the Part I crimes
    |
    The MOST FREQUENTLY OCCURRING of the eight offenses
  132. 132UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMViolent crime of murder
    |
    Occurs the least frequently
    |
    Accounting for only 0.1 percent of the TOTAL for these eight crimes
  133. 133UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMLooking at crimes known to police
    |
    In 2013, violent crimes were down 14.5 percent from 2004
    |
    Property crime rate was 22.3 percent below the 2004 rate
  134. 134UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMThese are NATIONAL (US) figures
    |
    UCR breakdowns --> Different regions/ metropolitan areas
    |
    Variations in crime rates and trends
    |
    E.g. murder rates in many major cities increased in 2015
  135. 135UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUCR also reports the CLEARANCE RATE of ALL EIGHT major crime categories
  136. 136UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMAn offense is cleared when at least one person is arrested
    |
    Charged with the commission of the offense
    |
    Remanded to the court for prosecution
  137. 137UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMAn offense may also be cleared by exceptional means
    |
    Something happens to an offender outside control of the reporting law enforcement agency, the crime will
    likely be cleared
  138. 138UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMEXAMPLE:
    If a person about to be arrested for rape commits suicide
  139. 139UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMEXAMPLE 2:
    Youth accused of burglary is cited to appear in juvenile court or before other juvenile authorities
    The incident is considered cleared by
    arrest, even though a physical arrest may not have occurred
  140. 140UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEM2013
    |
    48.1 percent of VIOLENT CRIMES in the United States and 19.7 percent of PROPERTY CRIMES were cleared by arrest or exceptional means
  141. 141UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMUsually, murder has the highest clearance rate
    |
    2013, law enforcement
    agencies cleared 64.1 percent of murders; by contrast, burglary and motor vehicle theft have
    low clearance rates
  142. 142UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMArrest data should be distinguished from reported crime and clearance data
    |
    ONE CRIME may result in the ARREST OF FIVE INDIVIDUALS, or the arrest of ONE INDIVIDUAL may CLEAR OR SOLVE MANY CRIMES
  143. 143UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMAn arrest is recorded for each separate instance in which a person is arrested, cited, or summoned for an offense
    |
    Meaning that an actual physical taking into custody is not required
  144. 144UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMIf a person turns himself in to police
    |
    This is counted as an arrest
  145. 145UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMIn recent years, the highest number of arrests
    |
    Drug abuse violations and larceny-theft.
  146. 146UNIFORM CRIME REPORTING SYSTEMLike crime rates, recent arrest trends show DECREASES IN ARRESTS of both JUVENILES AND ADULTS for VIOLENT CRIME AND PROPERTY CRIME.
  147. 147UCR PROBLEMSOfficial statistics have always underestimated most criminal offenses
    |
    Overall number of criminal offenses that go undetected or are unknown by law
    enforcement agencies, known as the DARK FIGURE, is difficult to estimate
  148. 148UCR PROBLEMSOfficial data like the UCR program are routinely criticized for ERRORS AND OMISSIONS, so the DATA can be MISLEADING
  149. 149UCR PROBLEMSHierarchy rule
    |
    When a number of offenses have been committed during a series, only the MOST SERIOUS OFFENSE is included in the UCR data
  150. 150UCR PROBLEMSIf a person breaks into your apartment,
    steals money, kicks your cat, kills your roommate, and runs off in your car, ONLY THE MURDER will appear in the UCR
  151. 151UCR PROBLEMSEXCEPTION TO THE HIERARCHY RULE IS ARSON, which is always reported even if accompanied by a violent offense (e.g., murder)
  152. 152UCR PROBLEMSRelies on the ACCURACY AND COMPLIANCE of LOCAL AND STATE AGENCIES to report crime statisticsdefinitions of crimes change
  153. 153UCR PROBLEMSWhen definitions of crimes change (e.g. definition of rape)
    |
    Bound to be at least some temporary confusion in reporting instances
  154. 154UCR PROBLEMSMost recent UCR often DISTINGUISHES BETWEEN rape reported under the
    “legacy” definition and the new definition
  155. 155UCR PROBLEMSUCR data also
    CANNOT take into account EARLY DISCRETIONARY DECISION MAKING by law enforcement officers
  156. 156UCR PROBLEMSSuch as a decision NOT TO HAVE "FOUND" A CRIME when it is REPORTED by a member of the public or a decision NOT TO ARREST an individual
  157. 157UCR PROBLEMSMajor crime categories emphasize street crime
    |
    Neglect of the equally serious “white-collar” crime (e.g. corporate, political, and professional crimes)
  158. 158UCR PROBLEMSVery often these crimes are federal offenses and thus would
    not appear in the UCR
  159. 159UCR PROBLEMSMany cybercrime or Internet-facilitated crime do not appear in the UCR
    |
    Because they are federal offenses but also because they simply are not detected by the law enforcement community
  160. 160NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)1970s
    |
    Law enforcement community called for the expanded use of the UCR
    +
    More detailed information on crime than the summary statistics offered in the UCR
  161. 161NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)NIBRS
    |
    Initiated as a supplement to the UCR
    |
    NIBRS was initially intended to replace the SRS, not yet happened, but progress has been made.
  162. 162NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)FBI reports that as of 2012
    |
    15 states submit all of their crime data through NIBRS
    +
    33 state UCR programs are certified to submit in that matter
  163. 163NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Federal law enforcement agencies are REQUIRED to report crime data through NIBRS
  164. 164NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Through NIBRS, the FBI collects data on two categories of offenses
    |
    Group A: 46 serious offense categories --> arson, assault, homicide, fraud, embezzlement, larceny-theft, and sex offenses
  165. 165NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Group B: 11 less serious offenses --> passing bad checks, driving under the influence of alcohol, engaging in disorderly conduct, drunkenness, nonviolent family offenses, and liquor law violations
  166. 166NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Always danger in labeling crimes serious or not serious
    |
    likely that readers may challenge some of the categorizations above
  167. 167NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)IMPORTANT: Extent of the data gathered by the FBI differs according to the group in which the crime falls
  168. 168NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)NIBRS also has examined more
    closely bias crimes, the presence of gang activity in communities, crimes against law enforcement officers, and data on cargo theft
  169. 169NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Group A Incident Report Information
    |
    A crime is viewed along with all its aspects
  170. 170NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Report of a crime includes:
    Information about the victim
    Weapon
    Location of the crime
    Alcohol/drug influence
    Type of criminal activity
  171. 171NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Report of a crime includes:
    Relationship of victim to alleged offender
    Residence of victims and arrestees (if arrested)
    Description of property and its
    value
  172. 172NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)This added information --> indispensable tool for law enforcement agencies and researchers
  173. 173NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Provides them with detailed data about
    |
    When + where specific types of crime
    take place,
    What forms they take
    Characteristics of their victims and perpetrators
  174. 174NATIONAL INCIDENT-BASED REPORTING SYSTEM (NIBRS)Reporting for Group B offenses is less detailed, reflecting the lesser degree of seriousness of these crimes
  175. 175SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Many researchers believe
    |
    SR data provide a more accurate estimate of actual offenses than UCR or NIBRS statistics
    |
    UCR + NIBRS = based on law enforcement data
  176. 176SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)People report own criminal or antisocial activity to researchers
    |
    Respondents may inflate or deflate reports of their own criminal activity
    |
    Proponents maintain that SR offers a better approximation of criminal activity
  177. 177SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Early SR surveys are often cited in criminology history
    |
    91% of 1,700 respondents admitted they committed 1 or more offenses --> might have received jail or prison sentences
  178. 178SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)With average no. of offenses being 18
    |
    NO ONE in the sample had served an ACTUAL prison sentence
  179. 179SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Short and Nye:
    3,000 high school students, across all socio-econ status
    |
    Reported high incidences of unlawful behaviour, MOST was MINOR and not all qualified as crime
  180. 180SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)E.g. items included in measure of delinquency:
    1. Disobedience to parents
    2. Skipping school without a legitimate excuse
  181. 181SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Researchers added more serious items
    |
    Generally learned that violations of the law are common across all levels of society, though serious offending is less common
  182. 182SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Focus on delinquency rather than adult offending
    |
    Current studies' focus --> risk-taking behaviours that are associated with PHYSICAL or MENTAL HEALTH
  183. 183SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)National Longitudinal Study
    of Adolescent Health
    |
    initial data on 19,000 students (Grades 7 - 12, 132 schools)
  184. 184SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR info: VARIETY of health issues, incl. those associated with CRIMINAL ACTIVITY (e.g. illegal drug possession and use)
    |
    Subgroup of the original participants (~15,000) was re-contacted as young adults
  185. 185SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR Methodology:
    Study on dating behaviour
    |
    667 youths (12 - 18 y/o) --> dated during the past year, responded online to questions about their relationships
  186. 186SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Researchers found:
    High levels of violence as well as psychological abuse in dating relationships
    |
    Majority of BOTH BOYS + GIRLS describing themselves as both VICTIMS AND PERPS of abusive behaviour
  187. 187SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Abuse was primarily psychological (e.g. insults)
    |
    Nearly 20% of the respondents said they were victims of PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL ABUSE in their relationships
  188. 188SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Studies of SR criminal activity (except substance abuse) are conducted primarily with adults who are incarcerated
    |
    Researchers often ask inmates
    about the extent of their past offending
  189. 189SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Not all respondents are convicted individuals
    Early study of employee theft:
    researchers found that about 1/3 of employees admitted to stealing from their employers
  190. 190SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR survey --> income tax evasion found 10% of the respondents admitting to cheating on their taxes
  191. 191SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Gathering SR data --> Either interviews (personal or telephone) or questionnaires
    |
    More are now collected online
    |
    Raises additional questions about validity
  192. 192SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Online surveys: larger sample of respondents can be obtained
    BUT
    Presents challenges to
    quality control, reliability and validity
  193. 193SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR research --> larger, longitudinal studies, where researchers follow up a group of individuals over many years
    |
    Track both official contacts with police and their own SR illegal activity
  194. 194SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighbourhoods [PHDCN (1990 - present)]
    |
    6000 (children, adolescents, YA)
  195. 195SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Must be careful about drawing far-reaching conclusions based on the information from SR research
    |
    Unless the nature of the questions is known, as well as who was asked, why, and how
  196. 196SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Some people are likely to be dishonest in reporting their own antisocial activities
    |
    We must be guarded in reviewing the data obtained from SR studies
    |
    Especially those conducted over the Internet
  197. 197SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Include reliability checks in their methodology
    |
    E.g. cross-checking the information against other sources.
  198. 198SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR studies do suggest that minor criminal activity is extensive and widespread
    |
    at least among youth.
  199. 199SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)SR studies continually show that the number of individuals involved in serious crimes is relatively small
    |
    But those few who do engage in serious criminal activity commit MANY crimes.
  200. 200SELF-REPORT STUDIES (SRS)Repetitive offenders do not specialize in any one crime but show
    Versatile in criminal involvement —> wide variety of offenses, violent + nonviolent.

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Criminal Behaviour - A Psychological Approach (11th Edition) - Curt R. Bartol, Anne M. Bartol
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