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Research & Design

Amy Dooms Research & Design English 144 cards

Cards in this deck (144)

  1. 1Difference between * Inductive * Deductive * Abductive* Inductive= Data driven: explore > form theory
    * Deductive= Theory driven: theory > test
    * Abductive= Mixed: data > explore patterns > form new/modify theory > test
  2. 2Name 3 main assumptions philosophers distinguish between* Ontology: nature/reality/facts
    * Epistemology: knowledge
    * Axiology: value/ethics and their role
  3. 3Difference Objectivism vs. Subjectivism* Objectivism: based on natural science, social reality we research is external to us
    * Subjectivism: based on arts of humanity, social reality is made from perceptions & actions (of people)
  4. 4Difference Regulation vs. Radical Change* Regulation: seeks change within the current situation
    * Radical change: seeks conflict & changes the current structure incl. management
  5. 5Name the 4 paradigms for organizational analysis1. Radical Humanist
    2. Radical Structuralist
    3. Interpretive
    4. Functionalist
  6. 6Name 5 management philosophies1. Positivism
    2. Critical Realism
    3. Interpretivism
    4. Post-modernism
    5. Pragmatism
  7. 7Define Positivism- Natural scientist using observations to produce law-like generalizations
    - Promises unambiguous & accurate knowledge
    - Importance of 'What is given'
    - Strictly empiricist method for pure data & facts
  8. 8Define Critical Realism- Focuses on explaining what we see & experience
    - Middle ground between positivist direct realism & post modernist nominalism
    - Reality is most important consideration
    - Reality is external & independent but not accessible through our observation/knowledge
    - Senses often deceive us
    - 2 Steps to understand the world (sensations/events we experience & mental processing)
  9. 9Define Interpretivism- Humans are different from physical phenomena because they create meanings
    - Studies these meanings
    - Humans & their social works cannot be the same way as physical phenomena
    - Different people have different circumstances, cultures, times
    - Critical of positivist attempt to discover definite universal 'laws' that apply to everyone
    - Rich insights into humanity are lost if complexity is reduced entirely to a series of law-like generalizations
    - Purpose to create new, richer understanding & interpretations of social worlds & contexts
    - Collect what is meaningful to their research participants
  10. 10Define Post-Modernism- Emphasizes the role of language & power relations
    - Seeks to question accepted ways of thinking & give voice to alternative marginalized views
    - Emphasizes the chaotic primacy of flux, movement, fluidity & change
    - Any sense of order is provisional & foundationless & can only be brought about through our language
    - Seeks to expose & question the power relations that sustain dominant realities
    - 'Deconstructing' realities
    - Strives to shine light on what has been left out or excluded (looking at ideologies/power relations)
    - To challenge radically the established ways of thinking & knowing & to give voice & legitimacy to the suppressed & managerialized ways of seeing & knowing that have been previously excluded
    - Challenge organizational concepts
  11. 11Define Pragmatism- Rather focussing on making a difference organizational practice
    - Concepts are only relevant where they support action
    - Reconciles both subjectivism & objectivism (facts vs. values, accurate vs. rigorous knowledge)
    - There are many different ways of interpreting the world & doing research
    - There may be multiple realities
  12. 12Describe the 3 main methodological approaches for research1. Quantitative: numerical data
    (experimental/case study/surveys)
    2. Qualitative: non-numerical data
    (action/case study/interviews/ethno)
    3. Mixed method: both data types
  13. 13Name 3 sequences for a Mixed method approach* Concurrent (simultanuously, a & b)
    * Sequential (one after the other, a-b)
    * Sequential multi phase (mixed, a-b-a)
  14. 14What are the 6 different research purposes- Exploratory
    - Descriptive
    - Explanatory
    - Descripto-explanatory
    - Evaluative
    - Combined
  15. 15Describe Radical HumanismRadical Humanist: Critical perspective for organizational life, changing status quo incl. consideration of social construction
  16. 16Describe Radical StructuralismRadical Structuralist: View to achieve fundamental change based on analysis of facts/phenomena
  17. 17Describe InterpretivismInterpretive: Seeks the way humans attempt to make sense of the world. e.g. fundamental meanings of organizational life with possible multiple subjectivities
  18. 18Describe FunctionalismFunctionalist: Rational explanations & developing sets of recommendations within current structure
  19. 19Describe the aim of Exploratory researchExploratory: discover what's happening
  20. 20Describe the aim of Descriptive researchDescriptive: gain accurate profile of events/persons/situation
  21. 21Describe the aim of Explanatory researchExplanatory: establish causal relationship between variables
  22. 22Describe the aim of Descripto-Explanatory researchDescripto-explanatory: utilize descriptive to explain later
  23. 23Describe the aim of Evaluative researchEvaluative: Identify how well something works
  24. 24What is a null-hypothesis (0h)?0h is the explanation that there is no difference or relationship between variables
  25. 25Name 10 different research strategies?1. Classical Experiment
    2. Quasi Experiment
    3. Survey
    4. Archival & Documentary
    5. Orthodox Case Study
    6. Emergent Case Study
    7. Ethnography
    8. Action Research
    9. Grounded theory
    10. Narrative Inquiry
  26. 26What is an experiment?- Laboratory based research strategy
    - Precise
    - Purpose is to study the probability of a change in an independent variable causing a change in a dependent variable
    - Uses hypothetical explanations
  27. 27What is the difference between a Classical and Quasi Experiment?With a Classical experiment, a sample of participants is selected & randomly assigned to the control group or experiment group. With a Quasi experiment, participants are NOT randomly assigned.
  28. 28What is a survey?- Strategy using a range of questions to gather data
    - Often used in deductive approach
    - Often used for exploratory & descriptive research
    - Uses large numbers, easy comparison
  29. 29What is Archival & Documentary research?- Strategy that uses previous research, such as documentary/archival materials (audio, visual , textual)
  30. 30What is a Case Study?- Strategy that is an independent inquiry into a topic within its real life setting
    - Contextual variables are highly controlled
    - Limited ability to understand impact of this context by the number of variables for which data can be collected
    - Has capacity to generate insights from intensive & in-depth research
  31. 31What is an Orthodox Case Study?- Highly structured
    - Intention to continue linear way
    - literature reviewed first
  32. 32What is an Emergent Case Study?- Strategic choice of case study but allowing focus of research to emerge through engagement of this setting
  33. 33Explain a Single Case case study?- Critical/extreme/unique case
    - Defining the actual case
    - Ensuring approach is suitable for the nature of the research questions & objectives
  34. 34Explain a Multi Case case study?- Focus on whether findings can be replicated
    - Literal replication = multitude of exact replicated results
    - Theoretical replication = contextual factor deliberately different & impact of this difference predicted by researcher
    - Deductive
  35. 35Explain when to chose a Single or when to chose Multi study approach for case study?Single: when critical/unique/typical case
    Multi: when there is a need for replication
  36. 36What is the difference between a Holistic and Embedded analysis?Holistic is when you see the company as a whole, it's only concerned with that 1 company.
    Embedded is concerned with multiple sub units (e.g. departments)
  37. 37What is Ethnography?Strategy used to study cultural/social aspects
  38. 38What is Action research?- Emergent & Iterative process
    - Designed to develop solutions to real companies
    - Uses different forms of knowledge
    - Has implications beyond the research project
    - Purpose is to promote organizational learning to produce practical outcomes through identification of issues, planning & taking action & then evaluating the taken action
    - Focusses on addressing worthwhile practical purposes & resolving real organizational issues
  39. 39What is Grounded Theory?- Inductive strategy from a set of data
    - Reality is socially constructed
    - Systematic & emergent (Qualitative)
    - Start @ data collection (interview/observ), then analyse (coding)
    - Positivist / Interpretivist
    - Exploratory & Inductive (may use deduct. to form theory)
  40. 40What are the types of coding?Open coding: data into categories
    Axial coding: recognition of relation
    between categories
    Selective coding: integration of categories that form theory
  41. 41What is Narrative Inquiry?- Strategy that seeks to preserve chronological connections
    context can be best accessed by collecting & analysing personal complete stories, ipv collections of bit of data from specific iQs
    - May gain access to deeper organizational realities
    - Participant is narrator
    - Could be for interpretive & qualitative
    - Purpose to derive theor. explanations from narrative accounts while maintaining integrity
  42. 42What time horizon is referred to as a 'Snapshot' ?Cross-sectional studies
    (at a particular time)
  43. 43What is the 'Diary perspective' ?A Longitudinal time horizon for studies
  44. 44Which 2 aspects establish the quality of research design?Reliability & Validity
  45. 45What is the difference between Reliability & Validity ?Reliability is about replication and consistency, where Validity is about the generalizability of findings, accurate analysis of results, appropriateness of measures used
  46. 46What is Internal Reliability?Ensuring consistency during research
    (e.g. multiple researchers)
  47. 47What is External Reliability?Refers to if data collection techniques & analytical procedures would produce consistent findings if repeated
  48. 48What are 4 threats to Reliability?Participant Error
    Participant Bias
    Researcher Error
    Researcher Bias
  49. 49What is Participant Error?Any factor that affects participant performance
    e.g. Survey right before lunch may affect the way they respond compared to choosing a less sensitive time
    (they might rush to complete it)
  50. 50What is Participant Bias?Any factor that induces a false response.
    e.g. Interview in open office space may lead participant to provide falsely positive answers as they might fear to be overheard, rather than remain anonymous
  51. 51Explain Researcher Error?Any factor which alters the researchers interpretation
    e.g. if a researcher is tired, or not sufficiently prepared, this may cause the answers to be misunderstood
  52. 52What is Researcher Bias?any factor which includes bias in the researcher's recording of responses.
    e.g. Researcher may allow their own subjective view to get in the way of fairly and accurately recording and interpreting participant's responses.
  53. 53What is Internal Validity?- Refers to extend that your findings can be attributed to the intervention you are researching
    - Invalid research when a finding is false OR when a reported relationship is inaccurate
  54. 54What is External Validity?- Focusses on 'Can findings be generalized to other relevant contexts?'
    - Replication necessary to establish statistical generalizability
    E.g. a company uses survey results from finance department & looks into if same results go for HR department
  55. 55Name the 6 threats to internal validityPITMAM
    1. Past Recent events
    2. Instrumentation
    3. Testing
    4. Morality
    5. Ambiguity
    6. Maturation
  56. 56How can Past/recent events invalidate research?Past/recent events may change participant's perceptions.
    E.g. if a manufacturer recalls a product, the customers' view on product quality may be changed, which can affect a planned study involving this product.
  57. 57How can Instrumentation invalidate research?The impact of a change in a research instrument between different stages of research affecting the comparability of results.
    E.g. definitions of behaviours being observed in different stages of observational research, making comparison difficult
  58. 58How can Testing invalidate research?The impact of testing on participants' views or actions.
    E.g. informing participants about a research project may alter their work behaviour or responses during the research if they believe it might lead to future consequences for them.
  59. 59How can Morality invalidate research?The impact of participants withdrawing from studies.
    Often participants leave their job or gain a promotion during a study.
  60. 60How can Ambiguity invalidate research?Lack of clarity about cause and effect.
    E.g. During a study, it was difficult to say if poor performance ratings were caused by negative attitudes to appraisal or vise versa.
  61. 61How can Maturation invalidate research?The impact or a change in participants outside of the influence of the study that affects their attitudes or behaviours, etc.
    E.g. Management training may make participants revise their responses during a subsequent research stage.
  62. 62Other than Reliability & Validity, what can also be used as criteria to asses quality of research design?-Dependability (R) - recording of all changes
    -Credibility (IV) - representation of social constructs matches intentions
    -Transferability (EV) - full description in other setting
    - Authenticity - Fairness (interpretivist)
  63. 63What are some Validation Techniques?Triangulation & Participant/Member validation
  64. 64What is Triangulation?Validation technique that uses more than 1 source of data & method of collection will require multi-method study.
  65. 65What is Participant/Member validation?Validation technique that sends data back to participant & allows them to comment & correct it for validation. Often used for Qualitative approach.
    E.g. review of interview transcripts
  66. 66What is an External Researcher?Does research in one (or few) companies that you need to request access for data (e.g. student)
  67. 67What is an Internal Researcher?Researching project within the organization you work for, you already know/understand the complexity of the company
  68. 68What are things you need to be aware of as an Internal Researcher?- Assumptions
    - Position
    - Implications
    - What you report
    - Detachment
  69. 69What is Census?When you are able to collect & analyse data from every possible case or group member
    When this is not possible, you seek to select a sample (e.g. due to time)
  70. 70What is Population when talking about samples?A full set of cases from which a sample is taken (doesn't necessarily mean people)
  71. 71When does Sampling provide a Valid alternative to a Census?1. When it's impracticable to survey the entire population
    2. When your budget constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population
    3. When your time constraints prevent you from surveying the entire population
  72. 72What are Pro's of a smaller no. of cases?- More time to design & pilot
    - More detailed information obtained
    - More time to gather data (of difficult cases)
    - More time to check/test data prior to analysis thus you can argue for higher quality data (higher accuracy)
  73. 73What is redefining the population to something more manageable - like a subset of population - called?Target population
  74. 74What is Probability sampling?Where the chance (probability) of each case being selected from population is known (but not zero)
  75. 75What is Non-Probability sampling?Where the chance (probability) of each case being selected from population is NOT known
  76. 76What is a Sampling Frame?A complete list of all cases in the target population of which your sample will be drawn
  77. 77What do you have to keep in mind when using existing databases?- Individual data bases are often incomplete
    - The info about companies are sometimes inaccurate
    - The info in databases can soon become out of date
  78. 78If your sampling frame is a list of all customers of an organization, what might you do with the findings?If your sampling frame is a list of all customers of an organization, you might only want to generalize & apply statistics of your findings to that target population
  79. 79Finish the sentence: The larger the sample sizethe lower the likely error in generalizing to target population
  80. 80What is Central Limit Theorem?The larger the sample size, the closer its distribution will be to the normal distribution & thus the more robust it will be (even when not normally distr.)
  81. 81The minimum number of samples advised for analysis is?30
  82. 82What is Statistical Inference?The process of coming up with conclusions about a population on the basis of data describing the sample.
  83. 83What is the calculation of minimum sample size based on?- Level confidence
    - Margin of error tolerated
    - Proportion of expected responses you think have some particular attribute (if unknown, make a good guess or assume 50%)
  84. 84What is the formula to calculate the minimum sample size?n = p% x q% x (z/e%)^2
  85. 85what are the Z-values with corresponding confidence levels 90, 95, 99?90% = 1.65
    95% = 1.96
    99% = 2.57
  86. 86What are Non-respondents?Respondents that are unable or unwilling to be involved in your research
  87. 87What are the different categories/types of non-respondents?- Complete refusal (0 questions answered)
    - Break off (<50% answered)
    - Partial response (50%-80% answered)
    - Complete response (>80% answered)
  88. 88What are the main problems for non-response?1. Refusal to respond
    2. Ineligible to respond
    3. Inability to respond
    4. Located but unable to make contact
  89. 89What is the formula for the Total Response Rate?TRR = total no. responses /
    (total no. in sample - ineligible)
  90. 90What is the formula for the Active Response Rate?ARR = total no. responses /
    (total no. sample - (ineligible+unreachable))
  91. 91What is the formula for actual sample size required?N^a = (n x 100) /
    re%
  92. 92What are the main sampling techniques?1. Simple random
    2. Systematic random
    3. Stratified random
    4. Cluster
  93. 93What is Simple random sampling?When you:
    1. number the cases from sampling frame
    2. then generate random numbers until min. sample size is selected.
    - Best when having an accurate & easily accessible sampling frame
  94. 94What is Systematic random sampling?When you select samples at regular intervals from sampling frame:
    1. Number cases from samp. frame
    2. Select first case using random no.
    3. Calculate samp. fraction
    4. Select subsequent cases systematically using this fraction no. to determine frequency of selection
  95. 95How do you calculate the Sample Fraction?SF = Actual sample size (ASR) /
    Total population (TP)
  96. 96What is Stratified Random Sampling?It's a modification of random sampling in which you divide the target population into ≥ 2 relevant significant strata based on 1 or more attributes (so divided into subsets).
    Only do this when you can easily ID significant strata in sampl. frame.
  97. 97Explain the steps for Stratified Random Sampling?1. Chose stratification variable
    2. Divide sample frame into discrete strata
    3. Number cases within each Stratum
    4. Select sample using random sampling (simple or systematic)
  98. 98What is Cluster sampling?Need to divide target pop. into discrete groups (clusters), which can be based on any naturally occurring grouping, and where samp. frame is complete list of clusters ipv indiv. cases
  99. 99Explain the steps for Cluster sampling?1. Choose cluster grouping
    2. Number each cluster
    3. Select sample by random sampling
  100. 100What can be a downside to using Cluster sampling? How can this be resolved?It maximizes amount of data you can collect, but also minimizes representativeness of samples. You need to maximize no. of sub-areas to allow for more variations in target population.
  101. 101Name some questionnaire modes?- Self completed (surveys)
    - Internet (on a site)
    - Web (via hyperlink on browser)
    - Mobile (QR)
    - SMS (text)
    - Postal/mail
    - Delivery & Collection
    - Researcher-completed
    - Telephone
    - Face-to-face (interview)
  102. 102What is an Uninformed response?When a respondent does not know (due to lack of knowledge or experience) & guesses the answer
  103. 103What does CAPI stand for? & CATI?CAPI =
    Computer Aided Personal Interviewing
    CATI =
    Computer Aided Telephone Interviewing
  104. 104What 3 Types of Data Variables exist?- Factual / Demographic
    (age, gender, income, marital status)
    - Attitudes & Opinion
    (feelings, beliefs, thoughts)
    - Behaviours & Events
    (influenced by context, what happened)
  105. 105What are the Forms of miscomprehension?1. Instructional - respondent doesn't follow intructions
    2. Sentinel - answering question as their line manager ipv management
    3. Lexical - misinterpretation of a word
  106. 106What does Internal validity of questionnaire refer to?The ability of your questions to measure what you intend it to measure (measurement validity)
  107. 107What is Content validity?a.k.a. Predictive validity =
    concerned with the ability of the questions to make accurate predictions
  108. 108What is construct validity?The extend to which a set of questions actually measures the presence of the construct you intend them to measure
  109. 109What is convergent validity?When different scales are used to measure the same construct & thus overlaps (correlation)
  110. 110What is discriminant validity?When different scales are used to measure very distinct constructs.
  111. 111What are 3 common approaches to assess reliability?- Test Re-test
    - Internal Consistency
    - Alternative form
  112. 112Explain what Test Re-test entails?correlated data collected from same questionnaire under nearly same conditions
  113. 113Explain what Internal Consistency entails?Correlating responses to questions with eachother
  114. 114Explain what Alternative form entails?Comparing responses to alternative forms of same question or groups of questions
  115. 115What does a value of 0.7 mean for the Cronback's alpha?≥0.7 Means questions combined in the scale are internally consistent in their measurement
  116. 116Name 2 types of Questions?1. Open - allows to be answered in participant's own way
    2. Closed - provides 2 or more alternative answers to chose from (forced choice)
  117. 117Name types of closed questions?- List
    - Category
    - Ranking
    - Rating
    - Quantity
    - Matrix
    - Scales
  118. 118What do you need to be clear on prior to quantitative analysis?1. Case selection & definition
    2. Data type(s) for scale of measuring
    3. Numerical codes used to classify data
  119. 119Name the 2 main types and 7 sub-types of data?1. Categorical
    a. Dichotomous
    b. Nominal
    c. Ordinal
    2. Numerical
    a. Continuous
    aa. interval/ratio
    b. Discrete
    bb. interval/ratio
  120. 120What is Categorical data?Categorical:
    Data whose values cannot be measured numerically but can be either classified into sets (categories) according to characteristics that can identify/describe the variable or that can be placed in rank order
  121. 121What is Numerical data?Numerical:
    Data that can be measured numerically in quantities
    E.g. Height, Weight, Age,
    Number of movies watched, IQ
  122. 122What is Dichotomous data?Dichotomous:
    Data variable is grouped into 2 categories
    (Descriptive)
    E.g. Results (pass or fail),
    Coin flip (head or tails), Gender (F/M)
  123. 123What is Nominal data?Nominal:
    (Descriptive)
    Data that is impossible to rank in order or numerically.
    E.g. country, gender, race, hair colour, etc.
  124. 124What is Ordinal data?Ordinal:
    More precise form of categorical data that can be put in rank order
    (Rank)
    E.g. income (low, middle, high)
    satisfaction rating (Dislike, Neutral, Like)
    education level (high school, BS, MS, Phd)
  125. 125What is Continuous data?Continuous:
    Data whose values can theoretically take any value provided that you can measure then accurately enough (might change over time)
    E.g. oven temperature, delivery distance, delivery time, weight, length, height
  126. 126What is Discrete data?Discrete:
    a count that involves integers (whole numbers) - only a limited number of values is possible - and cannot be subdivided into different parts.
    E.g. number of people in a class, test questions answered correctly
  127. 127What is Interval data?Interval:
    You can state the difference or interval between any 2 data points for a variable. (interval can be - & + NOT x & : )
    E.g. Temperature scale, school grading, IQ test, statistics
  128. 128What is Ratio data?Ratio:
    Difference of any 2 data points of a variable can be calculated by : or x
    E.g. Growth in profit doubled, no. of attendees of an event
  129. 129What does EDA mean?Exploratory Data Analysis:
    - To emphasize the use of graphs to explore & understand your data (images/charts)
    - Allows for flexibility to introduce previous unplanned analysis to respond to new findings (e.g. looking for other relationships in your research)
  130. 130Name different ways to visually display data?- Bar Graph
    - Histogram
    - Pie Chart
    - Word Cloud
    - Pictogram
    - Line Graph
  131. 131How can you best visually display specific amounts?Use a table
  132. 132How can you best visually display highest and lowest values?Using a bar graph/bar chart
  133. 133How can you best visually display Relative amounts?Word cloud (text),
    histogram (intervals),
    Pictogram (representation)
  134. 134How can you best visually display Trends?Line Graph,
    Histograms,
    Bar graphs
  135. 135How can you best visually display Proportions/Percentages?Pie Chart
  136. 136How can you best visually display Distribution of Values?Frequency polygon,
    Box plot
  137. 137How can you best visually display interdependence and specific amounts between variables?Contingency table,
    Cross-tabulation,
    Chi-square
  138. 138How can you best visually display highest and lowest comparison between variables?Multiple bar graph,
    compound bar graph
  139. 139How can you best visually display to compare proportions or percentages between variables?percentage component bar graph
  140. 140How can you best visually display comparison of trends so the intersections are clear?Multiple line graph
  141. 141How can you best visually display interrelationships between cases for variables?Scatter graph/plot,
  142. 142What are Mean, Median, and Mode?Mean = Average
    Median = Middle value of ranked order
    Mode = Value that occurs the most
  143. 143What is Dispersion?The difference within the middle 50% of values or the extent to which values differ from the mean.
  144. 144How to read a Chi-square test, T-test, Pearson Correlation,TBC

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Research & Design Flashcards on Research & Design, created by Amy Dooms on 20/01/2022.
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