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SD329 Block 2 chapter 1

vicstevens SD329 Signals and Perception degree English 108 cards

Cards in this deck (108)

  1. 1You need to have an overall understanding of the nervous system for this module but what functional role are we particularly interested in?The way it receives the transduced signal from the sensory receptors and the further encoding and processing of this information as it travels via nerves to the brain to form a percept.
  2. 2What is the human nervous system comprised of?Brain, spinal cord and many nerves through out the body.
  3. 3The human nervous system can be divided into two distinct parts. What are they?The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
  4. 4What does the central nervous system comprise of?Brain and spinal cord.
  5. 5What does the PNS comprise of?The peripheral nerves - the cranial and spinal nerves along with the associated nerve ganglia.
  6. 6What are nerve ganglia?Collections of nerves densely packed together to form an anatomical unit.
  7. 7In addition to the central/peripheral division the nervous system can be divided in another way. What is it?The autonomic nervous system. It is responsible for the viscerosensory and visceromotor functions. (Viscero means bodily.)
  8. 8What are the nerves traveling towards the CNS called?Afferent nerves.
  9. 9What are the nerves traveling away from the CNS called?Efferent nerves.
  10. 10What information can the efferent nerves carry?They may carry the highly processed output from the perception action cycle, which may be motor behaviour or they influence sensory receptors.
  11. 11Name the three meninge layers (from outer to inner).Dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.
  12. 12Where do you find the cerebrospinal fluid?In between the arachnoid mater and pia mater, within the ventricles of the brain (interconnected spaces) and the central canal of the spinal cord.
  13. 13What is the role of the CSF?It's main role is protection of the CNS but it also provides a definite pathway around the CNS.
  14. 14When were trepanned skulls found? How do we know they were done deliberately and before death?Neolithic times.
    They had smooth edges around the hole and signs of healing, a sign of attempts to relieve pressure after trauma rather than a burial ritual.
  15. 15Why was little progress made on the study of the brain after Herophilus and Erasistratus declared it the organ if intellect (c.4BC.) until sixteenth century?Lack of experimental techniques.
  16. 16What connection was made between areas of the brain and behaviour in the 16th Century? What did this allow scientists to do?Physical accidents or disease caused lesions in parts of the brain, could produce altered perceptions or behaviours in those who survived. This was confirmed in post -mortem and allowed for functions to be prescribed to certain areas of the brain.
  17. 17What are the limitations of assigning functions to brain areas in this way?An injury rarely affects a single region. Function deficits are likely to be the result of alterations in activity across a number of interconnected regions.
  18. 18How were nerves identified during post mortem?Shiny, white sinewy threads were found extending from the eyes to regions of the brain. By analogy nerves in other parts of the body could be identified.
  19. 19What advances in the 18/19th C. helped with neuro-anatomical research?Light microscopy and techniques for preparing samples.
  20. 20At the beginning of the 20th C. which three scientists carried out ground breaking studies which advanced our understanding of the brain?Cajal
    Golgi
    Brodmann
  21. 21What are the first 2 things you notice about the appearance of the brain?They are divided into 2 cerebral hemispheres.
    The cerebral cortex is folded.
  22. 22What is the area of the human cerebral cortex and how thick is it?0.22 m^2
    3 mm thick.
  23. 23What are the valleys and ridges of the cerebral cortex called?Valleys - sulci.
    Ridges - gyri.
  24. 24What are the four main divisions of the cerebral cortex? Name some examples of their functions.Frontal lobe. (Executive/voluntary motor functions, Brocca's - speech expression)
    Parietal lobe. (Processing bodily functions, perceiving special relationships, perception of peripheral sensations, awareness of limbs.)
    Temporal lobe. (Hearing, taste and smell. Dominant hem - speech)
    Occipital lobe. (Processing visual info.)
  25. 25How many functional areas did Brodmann identify?47
  26. 26The cerebral cortex is responsible for a wide range of functions. Name some of them.Significant portions of sensory processing.
    voluntary movement.
    Higher cognitive functions like attention, learning, memory, problem solving, action planning, mental flexibility.
  27. 27What is the least developed part of the brain at birth?The cerebral cortex.
  28. 28What two other parts of the brain are visible from an external view of the brain?The cerebellum and the brainstem which is a collective term for the midbrain, pons and medulla of the hind brain.
  29. 29Much of the information is delivered to the brain via the spinal cord. What else delivers information and how many are there?The 12 cranial nerves.
  30. 30What else might the cranial nerves carry?Motor signals.
  31. 31What are the four distinct regions of the spinal cord? (From top to bottom.)Cervical.
    Thoracic.
    Lumbar.
    Sacral.
    N.B. The sacral does not reach the very bottom of the spine.
  32. 32How many segments, mirroring the backbone, are there in the spinal cord?31
  33. 33What does each segment have?A dorsal root nerve and a ventral root nerve that extend from each side of the cord.
  34. 34What does dorsal and ventral mean simply?Dorsal - to the back.
    Ventral - to the front.
  35. 35The dorsal and ventral root nerves join together as they leave the vertebral discs becoming what?A spinal nerve.
  36. 36Describe the flow of information in the dorsal and ventral roots.The dorsal root contains only nerves that bring sensory information to the CNS from the PNS (afferent). The ventral root carries information from the CNS to the periphery (efferent).
  37. 37What does the dorsal root ganglion consist of?It is made up of the nerve cells form the dorsal and ventral root nerves and is where they originate.
  38. 38What are the 3 major functions of the spinal cord?A route for sensory information to the CNS.
    A route for motor information to the PNS.
    A centre for coordinating certain reflexes.
  39. 39Why does the standard vocabulary for directions have different meanings for terms above and below the neck?For tetrapods, the orientation of the brain and the body is the same. THis is not true for bipeds. The brain retains the same orientation with respect to the ground (horizontal) but the body does not (vertical).
  40. 40Give the terms for up, down, front and back for the body in bipeds.Up - rostral.
    Down - caudal.
    Front - ventral. (anterior)
    Back - dorsal. (posterior)
  41. 41Give the terms for up, down, front and back for the head in bipeds.Up - dorsal (superior).
    Down - ventral (interior).
    Front - rostral. (except in imaging studies where it is cranial.)
    Back - caudal.
  42. 42What is the name for the line drawn down the centre of the body?The midline.
    The medial plane.
  43. 43What is the name for a structure close to the midline and for one far away?If something is close it is medial. If it is far away it is lateral.
  44. 44What are the terms to describe two structures on the same side of the midline and on opposite sides?Ipsilateral for two structures on the same side and contralateral for two on different sides of the midline.
  45. 45In general what is the name for a structure that is far away and also for a structure that is closer?Distal - further away.
    Proximal - closer.
  46. 46Cross-sectional planes of the brain are usually taken in 1 horizontal plane and two vertical planes. What are they called and where do they section?The 'horizontal' plane sections the brain into upper, (dorsal) and lower, (ventral) sections. (Also axial and transverse in neuroradiology) One vertical section - 'coroanal', sections the brain into anterior and posterior parts. The 'sagittal' plane sections it into the two hemispheres along the midline.
  47. 47What is the name for functionally and anatomically distinct structures in the brain?Nuclei.
  48. 48What is the function of the nervous system?To maintain homeostasis and control behaviour. This keeps the body working effectively.
  49. 49What is the spinal cord continuous with?The brain stem.
  50. 50What are the two cerebral hemispheres called collectively?The cerebrum.
  51. 51What other 3 main divisions of the brain are there?Fore brain, mid brain and hind brain. You may also come across telencephalon and diencephalon which further divide the fore brain. Mesencephalon is another name for the midbrain.
  52. 52Name some roles for the thalamus.Relays sensory and motor information to the cortex.
  53. 53Name some roles for the hypothalamus.Hormone systems control and homeostasis.
  54. 54Name some roles for the basal ganglia.Controlled movements and behaviour.
  55. 55Name some roles for the hippocampus.Learning, memory and spatial navigation.
  56. 56In the mid brain what role do the tectum, tegmentum, cerebral peduncles and other specific regions control?The tectum - auditory and visual functions. The tegmentum - motor functions, attention and autonomic functions.
    Cerebral peduncles - contains acsending and descending nerve pathways.
    Other regions - reflexive behaviours.
  57. 57In the hind brain what are some of the roles of the cerebellum, pons and medulla?Cerebellum - motor sequences and movement.
    Pons - sleep, respiration, eye movement, facial expressions and equilibrium.
    Medulla - autonomic functions such as cardio-pulmonary.
  58. 58The two hemispheres are not identical, what might these asymmetries lead to?Handedness and behavioural asymmetries.
  59. 59What is the name for an additional area of the cortex that cannot be seen externally?The insula.
  60. 60What are the main functional regions of the cortex?The regions for sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch as well as motor areas.
  61. 61There are also secondary regions for the senses. What do they do?Involved in the less descriminate aspects of sensation.
  62. 62What do the association areas of the cortex do?They do not receive direct sensory input but are thought to be responsible for reasoning, abstract thinking, planning, judgement, written and spoken language and socialisation.
  63. 63Axons from the ANS leave in the spinal motor nerves. They synapse in a sympathetic ANS ganglion. What would they go on to innervate?Either a gland, internal organ or blood vessel.
  64. 64What do the first four cranial nerves do?1. olfactory nerve sensory from receptor cells.
    2. Optic nerve - sensory
    3. Occulomotor nerve - motor - control of eye and pupil movement. Sensory some info about position and movement of eye.
    4. Troclear nerve - motor - control of eyeball. Sensory info about eye movement.
  65. 65What do cranial nerves 5-8 do?5. Trigaminal nerve - motor control of jaw. Sensory info - touch and pain in head.
    6. Abducens nerve- motor eye movements. Sensory - info on position/movement of eye.
    7. Facial nerve. Motor - tear/salivary glands, facial expressions. Sensory- info from tongue and face muscles.
    8. vestibulocochlear nerve - sensory - info on balance and hearing.
  66. 66What do cranial nerves 9-12 do?9. glossopharyngeal - sensory- taste/touch from tongue, position of swallowing muscles. motor -control swallowing/saliva production.
    10. Vagus nerve -sensory homeostatic info about body. Motor swallowing and muscles in internal organs.
    11. Accessory nerve- motor control swallowing, movement of head/shoulders, voice production. Sensory - postion.movement of head shoulders, larnyx.
    12. Hypoglossal - motor - control of tongue. Sensory - position/movement of tongue.
  67. 67How are the 31 spinal nerves designated?Cervical C1- C8
    Thoracic T1- T12
    Lumber L1 - L5
    Sacral S1 - S5
    Coccogeal nerve.
  68. 68The CSF is produced by the Choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles. What route does the CSF take to reach the spine?From the lateral ventricle CSF is forced through the interventricular furrow into the third ventricle of the diencephalon. The third ventricle connects through the cerebral aqueduct to the fourth ventricle which is in the pons/medulla. The fourth ventricle narrows to become continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord.
  69. 69Around how much CSF is produced each day?Around 500 ml.
  70. 70The brain is 2 % of the body's mass and yet receives 15 % of the blood supply. What percentage of the oxygen does it commandeer?20%
  71. 71What are the 3 main blood vessels that supply the brain called?Anterior, middle and posterior blood vessels.
  72. 72Neurons are never very far from one of the fine capillaries. What is the furthest distance you might find one?50 micrometres
  73. 73What are the 2 main types of cells in the nervous system?Neurons and glia.
  74. 74There are 10 times as many glial cells as neurons. How many neurons are there usually?100 billion or 1 x 10 to the 11.
  75. 75What were glial cells first called when they were discovered?Nerve glue or a putty like matrix between neurons.
  76. 76What is the function of the plasma membrane? Describe the membrane.Maintains the structural and functional integrity of the neuron. Keeps extracellular fluid sperate from intracellular materials. Allows transport of molecules through. A bilayer of lipids with embedded proteins, 5 micrometres thick.
  77. 77Why do the extracellular and intracellular environments need to be kept seperate?They have different compositions and some functions depend on different concentrations of ions across the membrane. e.g. for action potentials.
  78. 78What is the cytoplasm made of? What is the cytoplasm of an axon called?Cytosol.
    Axoplasm.
  79. 79What is the function of the ribosome?About 25 nm in diameter, formed of ribosomal ribonucleic acids. Ribosomes attached to the ER produce proteins for export out of the cell. Free ribosomes produce proteins for use within the cell.
  80. 80Describe the Golgi apparatus and its function.Organelle with several flattened membrane bound channels. Proteins and lipids are packaged and modified for delivery in vesicles to elsewhere in the cell or for secretion.
  81. 81Describe the endoplasmic reticulum and its functions.Network of membranous channels continuous with nuclear envelope. RER (granular) - synthesis of proteins. SER (agranular) - synthesis of lipids. Packed and transported to elsewhere in cell. Also provides support.
  82. 82What kinds of structures make up the cytoskeleton?Microtubules- made of tubulin, 25-28 nm in diameter.
    Microfilaments- made of actin, thin, rod-like only 3-5 nm in diameter.
    Intermediate filaments - 8-10 nm diameter. Thin, rodlike. Neurofilaments are type of intermediate filament. Bones of axon.
  83. 83What is the nuclear envelope?Double membrane around nucleus, porous, continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
  84. 84What are lysosomes?Small organelles that contain digestive acid hydrolase enzymes that digest waste materials and cellular debris.
  85. 85What are mitochondria?Organelle that generates energy for the cell by breaking down glucose or fats in the presence of oxygen in a process called respiration.
  86. 86What are the 3 main structural features of a neuron?The cell body, the dendrites and the axon with its terminal branches.
  87. 87What is the function of the cell body in a neuron? Give another name for the cell body.It acts as the metabolic centre, containing the nucleus and most of the organelles.
    The soma.
  88. 88How much do cell bodies vary in size?10 micrometers for spiny stellate cells and 50 micrometers for the solitary cells in the visual cortex.
  89. 89What do ganglia contain?The cell bodies of neurons.
  90. 90Give three characteristics of the axon.1. Long thin tubular process of uniform diameter(less than 1 micrometer).
    2. Branches extensively at the end.
    3. end of each branch has a bulbous expansion called the axon terminal.
  91. 91To what extent can the axon length vary?From less than a mm to over a metre.
  92. 92Describe a nerve.A bunch of parallel axons of neurons. We only use nerve when refering to this bunch. A neuron is used to describe a singular neuron cell.
  93. 93Describe a dendrite.The main target for input from another neuron. Also tubular processes, (up to 250 micrometers), filled with cytoplasm, but shorter and thicker than an axon. Also more highly branched than axon. Distal parts become thinner with less organelles. Sometimes described as dendritic trees.
  94. 94What is the difference between basal dendrites and apical dendrites?Basal dendrites form a spherical pattern around the cell body whereas the apical dendrite is singular and extends out a long way from the cell body.
  95. 95It is now accepted that there is no structural continuity between neurons. Where does information transfer take place?At a synapse.
  96. 96How many synapses does each neuron typically have?Several thousands.
  97. 97What are the terms for the neuron that transmits the signal at the synapse and for the neuron that receives it? Use these terms to describe what happens.The axon terminal of the pre-synaptic neuron synapses with a dendritic spine on the post-synaptic neuron.
  98. 98There are a large number of dendritic spines on the dendrites of neurons. How many are there for a pyramidal cell?Around 15 000.
  99. 99Not all neurons have dendritic spines. What is the advantage of having dentritic spines on dendrites?Dendritic spines can alter their morphology thereby altering the physiological effect of the synaptic input they receive.
  100. 100What is the main tenet of neuroscience?The neuron doctrine.
  101. 101What is the action hillock?A small conical extension where the axon joins the cell body. The point where the action potential is initiated. Also known as the spike initiating zone.
  102. 102What is another name for the axon terminal?Axonal bouton.
  103. 103Branching at the end of an axon means that axons can synapse with many other neurons in the brain. About how many?Up to 1000
  104. 104What does an axon do?Transmits action potentials away from the cell body to another neuron or an effector.
  105. 105Describe a granule cell and where is it found?Granule cells are association neurons found in the cortex of the cerebellum and in the olfactory bulb. Picture shows dendrites branching off in four clumps and a axon that branches in two directions.
  106. 106Describe a motor neuron from the spinal cord.The motor neuron has fewer/larger branches of dendrites, a larger cell body and a single axon.
  107. 107Describe a pyramidal cell.Pyramidal cell body shape. Lots of longer dendrites, apical dendrite is branched along its length, highly branched axon. Found in the cerebral cortex.
  108. 108Describe a purkinje cell.Large, elaborate, flat denritic trees, arranged in rows like a pack of cards, found in the cortex of the cerebellum.

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degree SD329 Signals and Perception Flashcards on SD329 Block 2 chapter 1, created by vicstevens on 29/10/2015.
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