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| Question | Answer |
| case study | An in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people. |
| confirmation bias | The tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them. |
| confounding variables | Variables that are irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher’s conclusions. |
| control group | A group that experiences all experimental procedures, with the exception of exposure to the independent variable. |
| correlations | A measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. |
| critical thinking | The ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently. |
| cross-sectional study | An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages. |
| dependent variable | A measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the “result” part of a hypothesis |
| descriptive statistics | Statistical methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value. |
| double-blind procedure | A research design that controls for placebo effects in which neither the participant nor the experimenter observing the participant knows whether the participant was given an active substance or treatment or a placebo. |
| experiment | A research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality. |
| experimental groups | A group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable. |
| generalizations | The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS) |
| hypothesis | A proposed explanation for a situation, usually taking the form “If A happens, then B will be the result.” |
| independent variable | An experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; the “if A happens” part of a hypothesis |
| inferential statistics | Statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations |
| informed consent | Permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained |
| longitudinal study | An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time. |
| mean | The numerical average of a set of scores. |
| measure | A method for describing a variable’s quantity. |
| median | The halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below. |
| meta-analysis | A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic. |
| mixed longitudinal design | A method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies. |
| mode | The most frequently occurring score in a set of data |
| naturalistic observation | An in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting. |
| normal distribution | A symmetrical probability function |
| null hypothesis | A hypothesis stating the default position that there is no real difference between two measures |
| objectivity | The practice of basing conclusions on facts, without the influence of personal emotion and bias. |
| operationalization | Defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured. |
| peer review | The process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication |
| placebo | An inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real, active substance or treatment. |
| population | The entire group from which a sample is taken. |
| publication bias | The possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon. |
| random assignment | The procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment |
| reliability | The consistency of a measure, including test–retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency. |
| replication | Repeating an experiment and producing the same results. |
| sample | A subset of a population being studied. |
| science | A method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation |
| standard deviation | A measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is |
| statistical significance | A standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance. |
| surveys | A descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions |
| theories | A set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena. |
| third variable | A variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest. |
| validity | A quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e., the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do). |
| variables | A factor that has a range of values. |
| How did people attempt to understand natural phenomena, early in history | applying human characteristics to nature |
| What did people often base their form strong beliefs? | faith, which literally means “trust.” |
| What type of knowledge does science refer to? | a special way of learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation. |
| What does science rely on? | objectivity, rather than subjectivity. |
| What does subjectivity mean? | that conclusions reflect personal points of view. |
| What does "hit or miss,” mean? | making conclusions based only on whatever is happening around us. |
| What not only explains and organizes known facts, but also generate new predictions? | scientific theories |
| What links concrete variables based on your theory and makes specific predictions. | hypothesis |
| What do Correlational methods do? | help psychologists see how two variables of interest |
| Why do Psychologists use experiments? | to test their hypotheses and to determine the causes of behavior. |
| What helps researchers make careful, systematic, real-world observations. | descriptive methods |
| When do Psychologists often use case studies? | when large numbers of participants are not available or when a particular participant possesses unique characteristics, as in the case described in this section. |
| How we begin our analysis of correlations? | measuring our variables. |
| What is zero correlation? | which the two variables have no systematic relationship with each other. |
| What permits us to discuss the relationships between two variables but tell us nothing about whether one variable causes changes in the other. | Correlations |
| What are the three specific techniques for assessing the normal behaviors associated with age? | cross-sectional, longitudinal, and mixed longitudinal designs. |
| What can we use to explore the characteristics of the data obtained from our research. | descriptive statistics |
| What are the three types of measures for central tendency? | mean, median, and mode for each group of scores. |
| What does a smaller standard deviation suggests? | that most scores might be found near the mean |
| What does a larger standard deviation suggest? | that the scores are spread out from the mean. |
| we do we use inferential statistics. | To reach conclusions about how our observations of a sample might fit the bigger picture of groups of people |
| What does Confidentiality refer to? | The participants’ right to have their data revealed to others only with their permission. |
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