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| Question | Answer |
| Hindsight Base | tendency to believe, once the outcome is already known of course, that you would have forseen it...that even though it's over and you know the outcome, you knew it all along. |
| Overconfidence | to the tendency to be very sure of a fact and later finding that the objective reality was different. |
| scientific method | step-by-step procedure psychologists use when conducting research |
| Generalization | refers to a process within operant and classical conditioning, where a conditioned response (CR) starts occurring in response to the presentation of other, similar stimuli, not just the conditioned stimulus |
| hypothesis | Hypotheses usually come from theories; when planning an experiment, a researcher finds as much previous research on the topic of study as possible. |
| operational definitions aka operation definition | A statement of the procedures ; identifies the IV & DV, sampling & assignment |
| case study | is one type of observational data collection technique in which one individual is studied in-depth in order to identify behavioral, emotional, and/or cognitive qualities that are universally true, on average, of others. |
| survey | a method for collecting information or data as reported by individuals. |
| naturalistic observation | Researchers use all sorts of techniques to collect data, ranging from very controlled lab experiments to natural observation. |
| correlation | is a statistical index used to represent the strength of a relationship between two factors, how much and in what way those factors vary, and how well one factor can predict the other. |
| correlation coefficient | This is a measure of the direction (positive or negative) and extent (range of a correlation coefficient is from -1 to +1) of the relationship between two sets of scores. Scores with a positive correlation coefficient go up and down together (as with smoking and cancer). A negative correlation coefficient indicates that as one score increases, the other score decreases (as in the relationship between self-esteem and depression; as self-esteem increases, the rate of depression decreases). |
| scatterplot | is a visual representation of the relationships or associations between two numerical variables, which are represented as points (or dots), each plotted at a horizontal axis and vertical axis |
| illusory correlation | Sometimes people believe there is some relationship between events, variables, etc., even though none really exists. This is known as the illusory correlation and it occurs in everyday life as well as science. For example, you may have had some experiences with lawyers, some good, some not so good. |
| Ethical Principles for Animal Research | 1.) Research must have a clear , scientific purpose 2.) Provide humane living conditions for animals 3.) Legally obtain animals 4.) Least amount of suffering |
| Standard Deviation | shows how far scores vary from the mean ( average ) score |
| 68-95-99.7 RUle | means 68% of all scores falls within one standard deviation of the mean ( average) |
| Normal DIstribution | forms a bell-shaped or symmetrical curve (upside down U) |
| Mode | the most frequently occurring score |
| Median | the middle score |
| Mean | the average; sum of a set of scores |
| Dependent Variable | what is being measured in an experiment; the research variable that "depends" on the independent variable |
| Random Assignment | Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance |
| Cross- sectional study | compares individuals at various ages at ONE POINT in time ( one and done) |
| Longitudinal Study | Studies a single individual or a group over an extended period of time. Provide in depth information but can be expensive & time-consuming |
| Zero correlation | indicates there is NO relationship between 2 variables Ex. hat size & shoe size |
| Negative COrrelation | -1.00 (closest to it); means 2 variables move in opposite directions |
| Positive COrrelation | +1.00 (closest to fit); means 2 variables move in the same directions EX. Positive relationship between smoking & lung cancer |
| COrrelation coefficient | a number value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables |
| Correlation Studies | Researchers observe or measure a relationship between variables |
| Participant Bias | tendency for researchers participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed |
| Researcher Bias | tendency for researchers to look for evidence that supports their hypothesis & ignore contradictory evidence |
| Surveys | descriptive method; uses questionnaires or interviews |
| Skewed Distribution | Distribution with most scores squeezed to one end, few scores stretch out like tail. Skew named for direction of tail. Negatively skewed- skewed to left Positively skewed - skewed to right. Mean pulled in a direction of tail away from median measures cent |
| Reliability | Consistency or repeatability of results. Split halves reliability compares scores on one half to the other half. Test retest reliability compare scores on the same test taken at different times . Interrater reliability of the same test |
| Random Selection | Choosing of members of a population so that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen for a sample. |
| Random Assignment | Division of the sample in an experiment into groups so that every individual has an equal chance of being put in any group or condition. Is not possible for studies dealing with differences between sexes or age groups |
| Quasi- Experiment | Measurement of Dependent variable (DV) when random assignment to groups of a randomly selected sample is not possible. Often applies to studies involving sex or age of participants. Can suggest cause and effect. |
| Quantitative Data | Information can be reported as numbers for ease of handling. Nominal scale uses numbers to name something, can be used to count case. Ordinal scale can be ranked, ordered. Numbers cannot be averaged |
| Population | All of the individuals in the group to which the study applies. A sample is subgroup of the population that participates in the group |
| Placebo | Physical or psychological treatment given to the control group that resembles the treatment given to the experimental group, but contains no active ingredients. Placebo effect- response to belief that the IV will have an effect, rather than the actual of the IV. |
| Normal Distribution | Represented by a normal curve (upside down U shape)- symmetric with mean, mode,and median the same score; 2 sides are mirror image - Represents data about how most human traits are distributed through population EX: SAT; IQ |
| Naturalistic Observations | Observing & recording behavior in naturally occurring situations w/o trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| Inferential Statisctics | Statistics used to interpret data and draw conclusions - Use rules to evaluate probability that a correlation or difference between groups reflects a real relationship, not just chance (p) is the measure of real difference, p <.05 or p<.01 needed |
| Hypothesis | Prediction of how 2 or more factors are likely to be related. Often called a educated guess. An experiment tests a hypothesis |
| Experiment | Research method that involves manipulation of an independent variable (IV) under controlled conditions and measurement of its effects on a dependent variable(DV) . Only method that can establish cause and effect between IV and DV |
| Experimental Group | Group that you experimenting on; receives the independent variable (IV) |
| Ethical Guidelines for human research | 1.) Informed consent 2.) Voluntary participation 3.) Debriefing 4.) Confidentiality |
| Descriptive Statistics | Numbers that summarize a set of research data from a sample. Can be pictured as histogram or frequency polygon |
| Confounding Variable | Factors that causes differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable. Ex: Experimenter Bias |
| Central Tendency | Describes average of a distribution. Median is middle score when data is ordered by size. Mean is arithmetic average of scores. Mode is most frequent score, bimodal distribution has 2 most frequent scores, multimodal distribution has 3 or more. |
| Case Studies | Research technique in which one person is studied in depth in hope of revealing universal principles EX: Phineas Gage |
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