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Flashcards

1011 Part 2

Pippa Holman English 178 cards

1011 Part 2

Cards in this deck (178)

  1. 1What are the main parts of earthquakes?- There is dislocation of land
    - Plates will slide past each other
    - The energy from the hype centre (focus) passes through to the epicentre via seismic waves
  2. 2What measurements are there for earthquakes?- Richter scale = Most common scale, logarithmic scale
    - It measures wave amplitude (height of the crest of the waves)
    - The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale (MMI) is arbitrary and works for observed features
  3. 3What are the differences between primary, secondary and surface waves?* Primary - Follow the direction of the wave, compressing each section as it goes along
    * Secondary - Waves move at right angles
    * Surface waves are with Love waves (at right angles) or Rayleigh waves (vertical and horizontal)
  4. 4What is the tectonic location of Nepal?- Indian plate subducting under Eurasian plate (at 20cm per year)
    - Two devastating earthquakes:
    1934 - Magnitude 8.1 (killed 8,519)
    1988 - Magnitude 6.8 (killed 721)
    - Country based on sedimentary materials meaning its prone to liquefaction
  5. 5What is the tectonic location of Kathmandu?- On a fault line and built on sedimentary deposits
    - Energy is focused into the valley centre
    - At risk to amplified frequencies (If earthquake comes into range of sediment at the frequency, the wave is amplified)
  6. 6What is the Gorkha earthquake case study?- Magnitude 7.8
    - 8,800 deaths, 23,000 injured
    - Kathmandu shifted 3m to the South in 30 seconds and area around it dropped
    - There is the potential for 10-15m more shift thought to still be stored
    - It wasn't the earthquake that killed people, but buildings. It could have been worse, but there were slower waves, making them longer and less bad for buildings
    - There were no surface ruptures
    - It came from an active fault that had not slipped in a long time
  7. 7What is a seismic gap?- An area along the fault line where there hasn't been an earthquake in a long time
    (In the Gorkha earthquake it came from the central seismic gap, so the quake wasn't large enough to release all the strain (not as bad as could have been))
  8. 8What is the Policy 1994 national building code development project for Kathmandu?- Building control, meaning buildings must resist moderate earthquakes with significant damage
    - Must resist collapse from major quakes
    - Those built before 1994 were built with poor law enforcement and lack of trained engineers
    (A similar project is in LA - gold building standard, but everyone needs to be consistent)
  9. 9What issues has Kathmandu faced with increased immigration?- The 'bright lights' has meant an increase of 2.5 million people moving to the city (5-7% increase in population)
    - Maoist insurgency is a local term meaning people are building on any piece of land regardless
    - 5- 10% of open space is now required for housing
    - Planners are conceding to political pressure
    - There is the tragedy of the commons issue where, with an increase of people, there are more environmental issues
  10. 10What is the risk triangle?Takes....
    1. HAZARD - Earthquake/ Tsunami etc.
    2. VULNERABILITY - Engineered/ social/ economic
    3. EXPOSURE - People/ buildings/ businesses/ infrastructure
    And aims to reduce vulnerability and/ or exposure (by limiting the amount of construction/ population)
  11. 11What have been found to be issues in Kathmandu for awareness of earthquakes?- A survey was completed to see how vulnerable or how aware people were to their vulnerability of Earthquakes
    - There was a 50/50 split
    - Early warning systems are only able to give warning 5-10 minutes before the event
  12. 12What dangers are there on glaciers to walkers?- Bergschrunds (pulling away from top of the mountain)
    - Especially as there are more tourists walking
    - Ice falls and seracs are very dangerous in the mid glacier
  13. 13What hazards are associated with glaciers?1. GLACIERS - Cause impact, burial, slope instability and can be sudden/ gradual, direct and indirect and on the local scale
    2. GLACIER FLOODS - Cause floods and lahars. Are indirect and sudden
    3. ICEBERGS
    4. ICE SHEETS - can cause sea level rise and albedo changes
  14. 14What is GRIDABASE?A database for all hazards of glacial region
  15. 15What are ice avalanches?- Glacier still moves forward, but ice falls and fans out
    - Trigger snow avalanches can combine with outburst floods
  16. 16Where are glaciers commonly formed?- At the top of volcanos
  17. 17What can be mitigating effects for ice avalanches?- Hazard maps (show who is at risk where)
    - Looking at relationships between slope and volume of ice
  18. 18What are glacial floods?- Lakes common in the glacial environment can be subglacial or proglacial
    - The glacier is always melting and moves either into rivers or forms lakes
  19. 19What are hazards that overlap for glacial and volcanic activity?LAHARS - Snow and ice melted by lava into a pyroclastic flow
    JOKULKLAUP - Flood from volcanic melting of the glacier
    EARTHQUAKES - Can trigger ice avalanches and cause GLOF and initiate lahars
  20. 20What was the significance of the Jokulhlaups at Eyjafjnallajokull?- Ice caps melted
    - 700 people evacuated
    - Main roads destroyed
    - 20 farms destroyed
    - Air space closed for 5 days
  21. 21How are hazards mitigated?- Monitoring
    - Hazard mapping
    - Evacuation plans
  22. 22Where are glacial outburst floods common?In the Himilayas
  23. 23How are glacial outburst floods created?DAMS - Ice retreat on the glacier causes high water once the pressure in the lake increases, ice will float and the dam releases
    MORAINES - Syphoned out from GLOF and regulate water coming out. Generally more hazardous as more difficult to predict
    Triggers for GLOF avalanches cause a wave that overflows the dam
  24. 24What are the triggers for glacial outburst floods?- Avalanche displacement waves (most occurring during the monsoon)
    *Ice avalanches
    * Glacier calving
    * Collapse of hanging valleys
    * Valley side rock falls
    * Debris flows
    * Earthquakes
  25. 25What is the case study for the Sabai Tsho GLOF 20km south of Mount Everest?- 1998 a warm, wet monsoon increased the lake depth and increased velocity and destabilised the glacier
    - Three small earthquakes caused an ice avalanche into the lake, causing a wave, a collapse of the moraine in 5-10 minutes and 25million m^3 of water, lowering lake surface by 50m
  26. 26How did mitigation work for Rolpa Tsho, Nepal?- Largest moraine dammed in the Himalayas
    - Ground penetrating radar studied moraine to locate the ice core
    - Tried to use syphon's to lower the lake level
    - Cut a channel and installed a structure to regulate flow
    - Array of sensors and audio warnings
  27. 27What different types of iceberg are there?What different types of iceberg are there?
  28. 28What forms of iceberg are there?What forms of iceberg are there?
  29. 29What is special about Greenland icebergs?- There are 75,000 ice bergs a year
    - This depends on
    *Calving rate
    *Trajectory
    *Flux
    *Life expectancy
  30. 30How are icebergs life expectancies changed by?1. INSOLATION - 0.3% effect
    2. WATER HEATING - 1.6% effect (higher water surface temperatures = faster iceberg melt)
    3. WIND CONVECTION - 14.2% effect
    4. WAVE INDUCED - 84% erosion effect
  31. 31What hazards do icebergs create?- Direct impact with ships or installations
    - Sea bed scour
    - Disruption of ecological systems
  32. 32How are the effects and potential hazards of icebergs mitigated?- Visual and satellite reconnaissance
    - Immobile structure (oil rigs) needing to have iceberg diverted
    *From towing or water cannons
  33. 33How are glaciers affected by climate change?- Sea level rise
    - Iceberg flux
    - Albedo
    - Ocean circulation
  34. 34What type of energy do glaciers provide?- Valley glacier retreat effects fresh water supplies and hydroelectricity (3/4 billion people in the Himalayas and South Asia)
    - Large amounts of freshwater and HEP
  35. 35How are the effects felt by glaciers through climate change mitigated?- IPCC reports on monitoring and modelling
    - Engineering solutions
    - Education (many people don't realise (or believe) glaciers are retreating)
  36. 36What is the summary for local and regional glacial hazards?What is the summary for local and regional glacial hazards?
  37. 37What is meant by disease?- A disorder of structure or function in a human, animal or plant, especially one that produces specific symptoms or that affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury
  38. 38What is a non communicable disease?- A disease that is not transmitted through contact with an infected or afflicted person
    - Can spread by heredity, surroundings and behaviour
    (Heart disease/ cancer/ diabetes/ hypertension)
  39. 39What is a communicable disease?- An infectious disease transmissible (from person to person) by direct contact with an affected individual or the individual's discharges or by indirect means (as by a vector)
    (Polio/ menangitis/ common cold/ Zika/ malaria)
  40. 40What patterns of indirect transmission are there?1. AIR - from aerosols or droplet nuclei
    2. Food, water and biological products
    3. Formaties - fecal - oral contamination
  41. 41What patterns of contact transmission are there?1. Vector
    2. Vertical - mother to baby
    3. Droplets
    4. Direct - kissing and touching
  42. 42What are infectious diseases?Any infection usually transmitted by insects
  43. 43What is the human biting rate?The number of bites by vectors per human per day
  44. 44What is the EIR (Entomological Inoculation Rate)?Number of infectious bites received per person per year
  45. 45What is vector competence?The ability of the vector to acquire, maintain and transmit pathogens
  46. 46How many different malaria spreading mosquitos are there and what other issues do they cause?90
    - Productivity loss as well as deaths
    - West Nile virus - doesn't kill humans, but ponies
    - As populations encroach into the tropics, transmission cycles close in and make different animals (humans) more susceptible
  47. 47What is meant by incidence?The number of cases in a given period
  48. 48What is meant by morbidity?The incidence of the disease
  49. 49What is meant by prospective?How long it is before the disease occurs
  50. 50What is meant by cohort?A group of individuals with certain characteristics
  51. 51What is meant by prevalence?Number of cases at a specific time divided by the population size
  52. 52What is meant by morality?The incidence of death
  53. 53What is meant by retrospective?The study after the disease occurs
  54. 54What is meant by longitudinal?Measurements and examinations that occur repeated in time
  55. 55What is meant by the basic reproductive number R0?- The number of cases one case generate on average over the course of tis infectious period, in an otherwise uninfected population
    - Helps determine whether to not an infectious disease can spread through a population
    - On average how many people one person will infect
  56. 56What does a larger reproductive number mean?The larger the value of R0 = the harder it is to control an outbreak
    Ebola had a high R0, questions with how quick it will spread and how people will cope
  57. 57What is the ultimate aim of all disease control?- To reduce R0 to be below 1
    - The further below 1 R0 goes, the faster the disease disappears
  58. 58What is meant by herd immunity and what does this show for the importance of vaccination?- The majority of people are vaccinated, meaning the population at large is protected (e.g. babies can't have injections when first born...)
  59. 59What is aetiology?The cause of disease
  60. 60What causes the differences for areas having diseases and not?What causes the differences for areas having diseases and not?
  61. 61How does climate affect malaria?Increased rainfall creates a breeding ground for mosquitos
  62. 62How does industrialisation and globalisation mean there are differences as to where diseases are found?- Spred of disease is faster and faster now over continents as human mobility becomes grater and there people travel more (in both MEDCs and LEDCs)
    - Black death taking about 10 years to come from Asia
    - Spanish flu travelled in 4 months from Africa
  63. 63What are disease risk maps?- We can't measure disease everywhere
    - Governments allocate funding for disease and need to know how much to set aside
    - The maps show how many people may be at risk and where
  64. 64How are disease risk maps used on the global scale?- WHO: situation/ progress made/ target areas/ efficient resource use/ numbers at risk
    - Funding agencies: efficient allocation/ impact measurement (global malaria funding is regularly increasing)
    - Scientists: Impacts of socio-economic/ environmental changes and causes of disease
    - Medical profession: Travel advisory/ imported case estimations
  65. 65How are disease risk maps used on the national scale?Governments: Resource allocation/ health system planning/ monitoring processes
    Aid agencies: Funding/ allocation/ impact assessment
    Scientists: Impacts of socioeconomic environmental changes and causes of disease
  66. 66How are disease maps used at the local scale?Local government: Intervention planning/ progress monitoring/ health system burden
    Aid agencies: Funding allocation/ intervention planning/ impact assessment
    Scientists:Impacts of socioeconomic environmental changes and causes of disease
  67. 67How were disease maps used in 1800s London- Regular cholera outbreaks
    - Thought this was because of 'bad air' (miasma theory)
    - 1854, over 500 dead in Soho in few days
    - Jon Snow undertook spatial distribution studies of the deaths, proving waterborne fecal- oral transmission
    - Water systems eventually changed
  68. 68What is malaria?- A parasite (not disease/ virus)
    - Caused by the protozoan parasites of the genus plasmodium
    - 5 species of plasmodium can produce the disease in it various forms
    - P. falaciparum is the most widespread and dangerous of the 4 - it can lead to fatality
    - (Other types of malaria can affect birds etc.)
  69. 69How are malaria parasites transmitted from person to person?- By the female anopheline mosquito
    - Females need blood for egg development processes
  70. 70What is the malaria development cycle?What is the malaria development cycle?
  71. 71What is special about the Plasmodium vivax strain of malaria?- Can reoccur
    - Most widely spread form of malaria
    - Less deadly than falciparum, but can lead to complications and death
  72. 72What is special about the Plasmodium falciparum strain of malaria?- Most dangerous form of malaria (highest mortality rate)
    - More prevalent in SSA
  73. 73What are the statistics for malaria today?- 350 -550 million episodes of clinical (needed treatment) P. falciparum malaria
    - 650,000 deaths in 2014, mostly children under 5
    - Pregnant women also at increased risk of complications and death
    - 48% of global population live in malarious regions
  74. 74What is the history of malaria?- Used to be equally spread around the world
    - Now mainly in SSA
  75. 75What are the impacts of malaria in regards to poverty?- A vicious poverty cycle
    - Malaria affects those living in poverty and then having malaria causes poverty
  76. 76What are the health impacts of malaria?- Jaundice
    - Kidney failure
    - Respiratory distress
    - Anemia
    - Pneumonia
    - Still births/ infant mortality
    - Coma
    - Death
  77. 77How is the burden of disease calculated?- Disability Adjusted Life Years lost (DALY's)
    - Includes deaths and impact of disability/ illness
  78. 78What are the socio economic impacts of malaria?- Inability to work/ attend school
    - Need family members to care for them
    - High costs of accessing treatment - travel, time off work, medications
    - High costs of providing treatments
    - High costs of control programmes
    - Reduced productivity
    - Abandonment of fertile land
    - Burden on animal health
  79. 79Why are children at high risk of malaria?- School attendance down
    - Growth stalled
    - Cognitive development problems
    - Physical fitness
    - Concentration
    - Mortality
  80. 80What is the key to controlling malaria?- Breaking the parasite lifecycle
    - Done by reducing the contact by humans and mosquitos
    - (Bill Gates foundation has this at its aim)
  81. 81How is malaria controlled?- Significant investment in control and research over the last decade and progress is being seen
    - Insecticide treated bednets (mosquitoes die when touch the insecticide)
    - Drugs
    - Indoor spraying using DDT (in low doses)
    - Larval source management (put insecticides in warm sun lit pools or get rid of them (landscape modifications))
    - Educate
    - Improve housing
    - Create a vaccine
  82. 82What is the history of malaria in the UK?- Used to be very common
    - Particularly in SE England (Fen and marshlands)
    - None today
  83. 83What control programmes have there been for malaria?- The Global Malaria Eradication Program (1965-69) of the WHO was largely successful (not in Africa) and pushed malaria into the tropics
    - Largely DDT based
  84. 84How have land use changes helped stop malaria?- Marsh drainage
    - Urbanization
    - Livestock increases (dairy farming - mosquitos prefer animals to humans)
    - Deforestation
  85. 85What housing improvements have helped stop malaria?- Windows
    - Doors
    - Sealed roof eaves
    - Screens
    - Air conditioning
  86. 86How has an increase in wealth helped stop malaria?- Health system improvements
    - Infrastructure improvements = access to treatments
    - Extensive control methods
  87. 87What medical and engineering advancements have helped stop malaria?- Sanitation
    - Drug efficiency
    - Case management
    - Access to treatment
    - Control method improvements
  88. 88What is the importance for measuring malaria?- Understanding the epidemiology
    - Clinical outcomes
    - Control methods - testing/ efficiency/ demand
    - Drugs
    - Socio economic burden
    - Inherited blood disorders
    - Travel risks
  89. 89What is meant by the parasite rate?The proportion of the population found to carry asexual blood- stage parasites
  90. 90How is the underlying population prevalence measured?- Blood samples taken and see if people carry the parasite (100 people, 100 slides)
    - Rapid diagnostic testing
  91. 91How does the environment contribute to malaria prevalence?- Disease tends to be geographically limited
    - Due to variation in physical and/ or biological conditions that support the pathogen and its vectors and reservoirs
    - CLIMATIC FACTORS: Rainfall (suitable conditions for breeding)/ temperatures (20'C suitable for malaria transmission)/ humidity
    - LANDCOVER: Vegetation/ water bodies/ agricultural land/ urban areas
    - ALTITUDE: Related to temp
    - SANITATION: Water supply/ waste disposal
  92. 92How is malaria still moving around the world?- Imported from other countries (people travelling)
  93. 93What is the impact of deforestation for malaria transmission?- In Latin America, theres seen an increase, as mosquitos prefer the open area
    - The reverse is true in SE Asia
  94. 94What is the importance of classifying floods as a hazard?- Flooding is one of the most common hazards
    - 2013 - 44% of all hazard deaths by flooding (80% if included with storms)
    - Highest loss of economic costs and life
    - 1 winter of floods in the UK costs £1.3bn
    - 2007 £3 bn worth of damage in UK
  95. 95Why are floods considered good?- Vital for natural fertilisation (SE Asian monsoons...)
  96. 96What natural processes cause flooding?FLUVIAL - Driven by river discharge (can be predictable - monsoon floods)
    PLUVIAL - Driven by rainfall (large storms and mainly unexpected)
    COSTAL - From storm surges breaching flood defences at high tide
  97. 97How does flooding become a hazard?- When considering the human impact
    - Construction in flood hazard areas
    - Drainage of the land (not enough - stays on the land, too much - diverted downstream)
    - Poorly designed urban areas
    - Flood defence infrastructure failure
  98. 98What have been the Earth's largest floods?- Ice dam failures in the ice ages that released 20m'3 of water per second
    - Not so much hazards as didn't affect anyone
    - Nowadays its the Amazonian floods, but again they don't constitute as hazards
  99. 99Where are the wettest parts of the world?- Tropical basins
    - Flood events occur during the monsoons - mainly predictable 120mm of rainfall
    - Societies will adapt, so not too hazardous
  100. 100What constitutes a catastrophic flood?- Destruction of human lives/ property
    - Creation of landforms/ landscapes
  101. 101What is meant by a probable maximum flood?THE LARGEST FLOOD THAT COULD POSSIBLY OCCUR AT THE LOCATION OF INTEREST
    - Looks at the largest possible rainfall for the area, geology of the area, channel size
    - Very very rare events (1 in 10,000/ 1 in 1 million)
  102. 102How is flooding distinguished?- Floods are an excess of water
    - The type of flooding is distinguished by either the event which causes the water height or the process by which it creates a problem
  103. 103What types of flooding are there?1. Winter rainfall floods
    2. Summer convectional storm induced floods - flash floods (normally over urban areas because of heat island effect)
    3. Sewer flooding/ urban drainage flooding (as drains overspill)
    4. Snowmelt floods - very localised and normally dissipate quickly
    5. Urban basement flooding - decline in industry in cities has meant aquifers aren't being drained as they were and water table rises, leaving water in peoples basements
  104. 104What is the issue with flooding?- Not all flooding occurs in the floodplain
    - This means different types of management solutions are required
  105. 105What are the key indicators to floods?1. Time to peak - how long it would be to be able to evacuate people/ install emergency defences
    2. Peak
    3. Volume
    - Absolute (base flow to the peak)
    - % of rainfall
    3. Recession rate - rate flood dissipates from land (gradient of the falling limb)
    4. Duration
  106. 106What is meant by quick flow?Speed of runoff into the river system
  107. 107What are the controls of peak magnitude?- Volume of rain
    - Proportion of rain that generates quick flow (1. rainfall intensity/ amount of saturation (catchment geology/ time)
    - Time taken for water to reach the outlet
  108. 108What are the controls of time to peak?Controlled by the characteristics of drainage basins
    1. Size
    2. Slope
    3. Shape
    4. Drainage density
  109. 109What controls the rate of flood water recession?1. Catchment geology
    2. Human engineering
    3. Flood retention
  110. 110What is the timings of the indicators to floods?Time to peak and recession - constant, as function of catchment physical and storage properties
    Peak flow and total volume -Varies from event to event, as function of amount of rainfall/ snowmelt, state of the catchment and geology
    DIFFERENT TYPES OF CATCHMENT ARE SENSITIVE TO DIFFERENT TYPES OF RAINFALL EVENT
  111. 111How are flood frequencies predictions created?- Using frequency and magnitude, by fitting a mathematical frequency distribution to flood frequency data to estimate the probability of a flood event exceeding an event of a given size
  112. 112What is the exceedance probability?- The probability that an event greater than or equal to X occurs in any one sample interval (a year)
    e.g. a probability of 0.01, or 1%
  113. 113What is meant by the return period?- The average time between sample intervals containing an event greater than or equal to X
    T = 1/p
    Exceedance probability of 0.01 = T of 100 years
    (Hence a 1 in 100 year flood)
  114. 114How do flood frequency curves vary?For a given catchment type:
    Variation in floods depends on variation in flood-producing rainfall
    For a given climate:
    Variation in floods depends on catchment physical properties and geology
  115. 115What can cause differences between flood frequency curves in different areas of the catchment?- Different geologys of catchment
    (Clay catchments higher probabilities than sandstone catchments)
  116. 116What are flood hazard characteristics?- Magnitude of the flood
    - Rate of floodwater rise
    - Duration of flooding
    - Depth and velocity of flowing water
    - Evacuation issues
    - Effective flood access
    - Size of population at risk
    - Land use
    - Flood awareness/ readiness
    - Effective flood warning time
  117. 117How are flood events defined?How are flood events defined?
  118. 118What hazards other than water are there in a flood event?- Sediment
    - Bacteria
  119. 119What is the legacy of the recent floods?*With the legacy of recent floods, river management is a social imperative
    *Managing rivers for asthetic appeal/ transport/ leisure/ water source for agricultural reason - how do we manage it?
  120. 120Who are the players in river management in the UK?- UK planning policy guideline section 25 about managing rivers
    - WFD - an EU directive that states there has to be a drive to improve the ecology of rivers
    - Government wants dredging
    - This all creates confusion about what to follow
  121. 121What is the extent of flood problems in the UK?* 8-10% of the area of England and Wales is floodplains
    *5.8 million people live in vulnerable areas with 2 million homes threatened on floodplains
    *Recent flooding events have caused huge damages
    - 2015/16 winter = £1.3bn
    - Summer 2007 = £3.2bn
    * Assets risk are due to inland and coastal flooding are in the region of £0.6bn a year (if no defences, then £5bn of assets at risk)
  122. 122What are the environment agency flood risk alerts?*The concept of risk is contented and means different things to different people
    * Risk is considered a combination of human and physical systems
    * There is need to analyse more than just the physical hazard
    * Flood agency has made 3 level warnings - Alert --> warning --> severe flood warning (loss of life)
  123. 123What is the risk triangle?1. Flood hazard
    2. Vulnerability
    3. Exposure
    All are elements, but aren't equal partners
    Risk acceptability also varies from person to person
  124. 124What is hazard?The frequency and severity of a source of danger which may cause loss of life
    (Probable frequency and severity of the process)
  125. 125What is vulnerability?The extent to which the subject matter could be affected by the hazard. A measure of susceptibility and resilience
    (Can very at even the housing level - impact of the process on the property by reason of location material or layout (high plug sockets))
  126. 126What is exposure?The proximity of the subject matter at risk
    (Value of asset at risk and cost of damage less excess/ response)
  127. 127Why is there a need to manage floods?1. Devastating nature of flooding
    2. Health effects of flooding (inc. stress/ psychological)
    3. Long term impacts of inundation
  128. 128What is Hewitts 'thresholds of tolerance'?- A flood is greater than the area when it can be considered a resource
    - A drought is less than the resource    What is Hewitts 'thresholds of tolerance'?
  129. 129What makes it look as though flood risks are increasing?1. MEDIA ATTENTION - floods increasingly reported on - brings to the social conscience
    2. INCREASING LOSSES
    3. PHYSICAL HAZARD BECOMING WORSE - climate change potentially affecting the amount held in the channels, or natural variability?
    4. RISK INCREASING - difficult to ascertain and disentangle the causes (4.4mn new houses - to build on floodplain?)
    5. NEED FOR MANAGEMENT
  130. 130What are the influences of flooding and flood management?1. ENVIRONMENTAL - Climate change and land use change
    2. ECONOMIC - Existing development and new development
    3. POLITICAL
  131. 131What are the 3 hazard response types?1. Reduce hazard
    2. Adjust people
    3. Accept loss
  132. 132How can the hazard be reduced?1. Modify the event - catchment management
    2. Reduce the impact - engineering and mitigation
  133. 133How can the people be adjusted?1. Select the location - land use embargo
    2. Select the activity - land use planning
  134. 134How can the loss be accepted?1. Share the loss- insurance
    2. Bear the loss - behavioural - maybe install a sense of natural behaviour to society, so people understand the risks involved
  135. 135What can be done to reduce the flood hazard?- Flood defence measures - flood walls and redirection of flood waters
    - Softer flood defence hazard measures - afforestation/ flood meadows/ temporary flood store areas
  136. 136What can be done for vulnerability?- Building standards
    - Individual scale mitigation measures - demountable barriers/ flood skirts/ air brick covers
    - House raising (have the ground levels exclusively for garages and sheds)
    - Flood preparedness/ emergency response - education and raising awareness/ flood forecasting and flood warning/ flood contingency planning/ evacuation
  137. 137What can be done for exposure?- Land use planning and development control
    - Voluntary purchase and the total loss of properties
    - Managed retreat / realignment
  138. 138What are the issues surrounding engineered flood defence measures?- There is a historical legacy of flood defence measures
    - There are issues that arise through differing public and political opinion
    - There is complexity of the flood defence management authorities and funding mechanisms
    - The hard, visual structures are said to cause too much of a confidence
  139. 139What are the complexities of flood management in the UK?*There is a massive level of hierarchy in the bodies that are in charge of flood defences, each with their own agendas
    *Smaller and smaller bodies are now making big decisions, ones that may not be best suited for the area
    *Policies change all the time
  140. 140What is the legislative hierarchy for flood management in the UK?What is the legislative hierarchy for flood management in the UK?
  141. 141What are the arguments surrounding whether flood defences are appropriate?- Flood defences are not suitable in all cases
    - There is impacts on awareness, environment and biodiversity
    - Other individual measures may also be cost-effective
    - When breached, they can often catch people by surprise when there is unfounded confidence as the defences are in place
    - Defences have saved 1.4m homes and 2500km2 of farmland during the 2013-14 winter (5500 homes flooded)
  142. 142How does land use planning provide a pivotal role within flood management?*Approximately one in ten planning applications in England are in areas of flood risk
    *There is failure to prevent development on the floodplain
    *There has been a huge dynamism in the change of the governing bodies responsible for land use planning in the past 25 years
  143. 143What is the planning policy guidance 25 about?- New policy implemented in 2001 (revised 2009)
    - Takes a whole basin approach
    - Risk- based approach
    - A principle where a developer will pay for any flood defences to be implemented if they are building on the floodplain
  144. 144What is being used to increase awareness and raise flood preparedness?1. Environment agency campaigns
    2. Emergency response and bloodlines
    3. Flood preparedness tools
  145. 145What is the difficutly of decreasing vulnerability?*With increasing flood risk raising awareness will need to become more important
    *There is risk denial and risk displacement
    *There are problems with inducing behavioural changes
    - Education would cause an attitudinal change that may then go on to change behaviour
  146. 146What do the foresight report of 2004 and PITT review of 2008 state?*Continuing current river management is NOT an option
    *Encouraging catchment- wide flood management planning is the way forward
    *Hard engineering approaches will be necessary
  147. 147What is meant by a dangerous system?*Issues will persist even if there has been lots directed at eradicating them - no one deliberately creates the problems
    *This shows it is an issue of the system itself
  148. 148What is meant by a complex system?- Any set of interrelated parts that produces behaviour that is difficult to understand or predict (there is then change in the way the complex systems themselves interact)
    - The interactions are ket as they can change over time...
  149. 149What are feedback mechanisms/ loops?- These change the interactions as they are sequences of interactions that affect themselves
    - Arrows create casual loops between system elements - each arrow connects two elements where the effect in each is either the same (S) or opposite (O)
  150. 150What denotes a negative feedback loop?If the loop has an odd number of O's
  151. 151What denotes a positive feedback loop?An even number of O's (or all S's)
  152. 152What are the concerns for exponential growth?- If something is needed to be done about an issue that grows exponentially, it has to be done very early
    - Both socio-economic and earth systems are growing exponentially and the positive feedback mechanisms are driving economic growth (this means they can head for collapse if tipping points are passed)
  153. 153How can positive feedback loops and economic growth be unsustainable and end in an abrupt change or collapse of the system itself?- Lakes can quickly switch from clear water to a brown (algae) water very quickly at a tipping point (this can be within only a few months)
    - This means it shifts from one system to another (knock on effects down the system line)
    - There are dangerous changes as the system state changes
  154. 154What are examples of tipping points and collapse in both the socio - economic realm and physical environment?PHYSICAL
    - Glacial - interglacial boundaries
    - The 'big 5' mass extinctions
    - The Cambrian explosion of new species
    SOCIO - ECONOMIC
    - The fall of the Roman empire
    - Arab spring
    - Collapse of the Soviet Union
    - 2007/08 global financial crisis
  155. 155What 3 theories are there for changing conditions?1. Linear responses - no threshold changes
    2. Step/ threshold changes - nonlinear
    3. Non- linear catastrophic bifurcation    What 3 theories are there for changing conditions?
  156. 156What is a linear response?- There is no threshold change
    - Things can be easily reversed along the same line
  157. 157What is a seep/ threshold change?- A nonlinear response
    - Where there is a small change that can then cause a sharp response, the system will then change to a different system but is still technically reversible
    - Can be referred as a system with critical transitions/ regime shifts and alternate steady states
  158. 158What is a non linear catastrophic bifurcation change?- An irreversible change (would have to go well back beyond the tipping point to resolve)
    - There is a small negative forcing which then makes for a reduction in conditions, where there is no way of going straight back to the tipping point
    - Can be referred as a system with critical transitions/ regime shifts and alternate steady states
  159. 159What is the argument for there being a planetary scale critical transition?*Humans will fragment the landscapes and adjacent natural areas will undergo indirect changes
    *The terrestrial ecosystems are transformed to agricultural landscapes
    *Global - scale forcing makes for dead zones (e.g. where the coasts are full of pollution and become anoxic)
    *There are climate change effects from greenhouse gases rising
  160. 160What is thought to be the tipping point in the Earth's biosphere?What is thought to be the tipping point in the Earth's biosphere?
  161. 161What is the issue with the tipping point of the Earth's biosphere?- If it is a bifurcation point, it'll be very difficult to reverse
    - Quantifying the land use as one method of anticipating a planetary state shift
    - Knock on effects can give changes to the biosphere over the tipping points
  162. 162How can we tell if a critical transition is approaching?*There is low diversity (can be on ecosystems and also on the likes of banks)
    *The system is more volatile (bigger fluctuations) taking it longer to adapt or get back to a functioning state
    *There is slow recovery, high correlation, high variance and multimodality
  163. 163What has been a signalling change for big organisations on acceptance for tipping points for the biosphere?*The world bank has released statements accepting the issues around climate change
    *There has seen converging trends for 2030s on food, energy, water and climate all becoming less secure
  164. 164In what two ways does danger have to be avoided for complex systems?1. Against planetary boundaries (global scale)
    2. By setting regional limits (local scale)
  165. 165What is meant by 'safe limits' and planetary boundaries?There is calculated to be certain safe limits to many domains categorising the planet, and the thresholds these could be tipped over are classified over certain boundaries
    Questions to whether the world is still considered a 'safe place' or whether it has gone over thresholds into unsafe spaces
  166. 166What boundaries are being exceeded at the moment?- Scientific understanding of climate change has suggested changes in the climate have exceeded safe limits (Rockstrom)
    - Biodiversity worst, nitrogen exceeding the safe limit
    - The safe limit for CO2 is around 350ppm (now over 400ppm)
  167. 167What are the components of the 'quadruple squeeze'?1. Population
    2. Climate dilemmas
    3. 60% loss of ecosystems
    4. Surprise - lack of linear systems (tipping points unknown and we can get systems that switch and get stuck in an undesired system)
  168. 168What is the 'human acceleration'?- In the mid 50s, there was human made exponential growths on many ecological factors
    - We now are going to have to 'bend the curves' to restore them
  169. 169What are the 9 planetary boundaries that have been aknowledged are needed to be at safe levels for a safe operating system?1. Biodiversity
    2. Climate change
    3. Ocean acidification
    4. Ozone depletion
    5. Biochemical changes (Nitrogen/ phosphorus)
    6. Global freshwater use
    7. Change in land use
    8. Atmospheric aerosol loading
    9. Chemical pollution
  170. 170What has been the new trend for the regional mapping of the boundaries?- Shows we need to work collaboratively on a local to global scale
    - They are new ways of thinking, where limits have been exceeded in regional areas
    - There is the need to think of the planet as made of integrated units
  171. 171What has the mapping of ecological boundaries in different areas found?- There are large areas in the world where there is the dual issue of human deprivation and environmental deprivation creating a vicious cycle
  172. 172What is the map of regional syndromes of social - ecological systems?- Maps have been maps created now for 6 different areas of 'syndromes' (constrains for development) of socio economic systems
    - Dust bowl - over intensive use of water/ agriculture    What is the map of regional syndromes of social - ecological systems?
  173. 173What is the new thought process for classifying issues of limits?- To add the social dimensions and make for a safe and just space for humanity
    - Looks at the 'donut' (includes within the normal issues; health/ food/ water/ education/ resilience/ jobs etc.)
  174. 174What was found in China when the 'donut' was implemented upon regional areas?- Sanitation and water were the key issues for poverty stricken areas, but the area also exceeds the environmental ceiling for water quality
  175. 175In what ways can local ecosystems be managed to achieve global resilience?1. FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL: changing laws, rules and management at ground level (deal with unregulated deforestation)
    2. FROM HIGH TO LOW UNCERTAINTY: Tipping points can be much easier to understand at the local level
    3. FROM NEGATIVE TO POSITIVE FRAMING: Gloom predictions can backfire and by encouraging action- orientated framing, more people are more likely to be more active rather than submissive
  176. 176What is the importance of pollinators?*Pollinators provide one of the most important ecosystem services
    *The vast majority of plants require pollination by animals
    *75% of globally important crops benefit from animal pollinations
  177. 177What is the contribution of land to the provision of pollination services?1. CROP - dependence on animal-mediated pollination
    2. POLLINATION SUCSESS - (Visitation rate) will decline significantly and exponentially with distance from natural habitats
    3. POLLINATORS - Nesting sites and habitats
  178. 178—

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Flashcards on 1011 Part 2, created by Pippa Holman on 03/03/2016.
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