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Kristen Plandowski Anatomy and Physiology Midterm 2 midterm English 116 cards

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  1. 1What are the two parts of the pericardium?outer layer =fibrous
    inner layer= serous
  2. 2What are the two parts to the serous pericardium?1) visceral = adheres closely to the outer surface of the heart
    2) parietal= lines the inner surface of the pericardial sac
  3. 3What is the pericardium?A loosely fitting connective tissue sac that surrounds the heart. It contains a small amount of lubricating serous fluid that allows the heart to glide smoothly against the pericardium
  4. 4What is the myocardium?The hearts MIDDLE layer
  5. 5What is the endocardium?A layer of simple squamous epithelial tissue that intimately covers the inner champers of the heart
  6. 6Where does the right atrium receive blood from?superior vena cava: draws blood from head and upper limbs
    inferior vena cava: draws from trunk and lower limbs
    coronary sinus: from cardiac veins
  7. 7where does the left atrium receive blood from?left and right pulmonary veins: draw from lungs
  8. 8Where does the right ventricle pump blood into?The lungs via the right and left pulmonary arteries
  9. 9Where does the left ventricle pump blood into?the body
  10. 10Why is cardiac muscles like and unlike skeletal muscle?Like: striated
    unlike: fibers are shorter, they branch and they only have one nucleus
  11. 11How do cardiac muscles connect to and communicate with neighbouring cells?Through gap junctions in intercalated discs
  12. 12Do the l and r ventricles hold the same amount of volume?yes
  13. 13How much more pressure can the left ventricle produce compared to the right?6 to 8 times more
  14. 14what moon shapes do each of the ventricles make?r=full moon
    l=crescent moon
  15. 15what are heart valves?flaps of tissue that acts as one way valves
  16. 16what are the two atrioventricular valves?tricuspid= right AV valve
    bicuspid (mitral)= left AV valve
  17. 17where are the two semilunar valves?b/w left ventricle and aorta and b/w right ventricle and pulmonary artery
  18. 18What does changes in pressure determine with cardiac valves?determines the flow of blood in the heart and cause the valves to open and close
  19. 19How does blood move?along a pressure gradient (high to low)
  20. 20what are the steps to opening the AV valves?1) blood returning to the heart travels through the atria and force the AV valves open
    2) the atria contract forcing addition blood into the ventricles
  21. 21what are the steps to closing the AV valves?1) the ventricles contract forcing blood against the AV valves
    2) AV valves close (first heart sound)
    3) Papillary muscles contract to stabilize the valves
  22. 22How do the semilunar valves open?as ventricles contract and intraventricular pressure rises, blood is pushed up against semilunar valves forcing them open
  23. 23how do the semilunar valves close?Second heart sound. as ventricles relax and intraventricular pressure falls, blood flows black from arteries filling the cusps of semilunar valves and forcing them to close
  24. 24What are the 4 valves and where are they located1) L AV Valve: bicuspid-b/w left atrium and left ventricle
    2) R AV Valve: tricuspid= b/w right atrium and right ventricle
    3) Aortic Semilunar Valve- at exit of left ventricle
    4) Pulmonary Semilunar Valve- at exit of right ventricle
  25. 25What does systole mean?the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle
  26. 26what does diastole mean?the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle
  27. 27How is cardiac contraction initiated?by a group of specialized cells called the SA node. they have the ability to spontaneously depolarize. The electrical signal then travels through the interconnected atrial cells and reaches the AV node, where the signal is slightly delayed. The signal is then delivered to the ventricles by the Bundle of His and the Purkinje fibers
  28. 28What is the Bundle of His?collection of muscles cells specialized for electrical conduction from the AV node to the point of the apex of fascicular branches
  29. 29Where do the fascicular branches lead and what does that do?lead to the purkinje fibers which excite the ventricles causing the ventricle muscle to contract at a paced interval
  30. 30What are the steps of the Cardiac Conduction System?1) SA node reaches threshold and generates an action potential
    2) depolarization is spread to all the cells of the atria via gap junctions and internodal pathways, a wave of contraction follows the wave of depolarization
    3) depolarization reaches the AV node, which conducts the electrical impulse more slowly (100msec delay). this gives atria time to empty into ventricles
    4) the action potential is conducted from the AV node through the AV bundle and down the left and right bundle branches
    5) The action potential reaches the purkinje fibers which conduct the impulse through the ventricles where it passes from cell to cell in the contractile fibers via gap junctions
  31. 31What happens as the ventricle depolarizes?Ventricles are filled, AV valves close and the Ca++ within each ventricular cardiac muscle cell is released from storage in the sacroplasmic reticulums, triggering the simultaneous contraction of each ventricular cell
  32. 32What is blood pressure?force per unit area exerted by blood against a vessel wall
  33. 33What is the nasal cavity?a space within and posterior to the external nose
  34. 34what is the route that oxygen comes in?nares
    nasal cavity
    pharnyx
    larynx
    trachea
    r and l broncus
    r and l lungs
    diaphragm
  35. 35What is the overall goal of the blood and blood vessels system?To transport O2 and nutrients to the tissues of the body, and to remove CO2 and metabolic wastes from the body
  36. 36What are the 3 main types of vessels in the cardiovascular system and what do they do ?1) arteries- move blood away from the heart
    2) veins- move blood toward the heart
    3) capillaries- allow for transport of gases and nutrients into and out of the blood
  37. 37What is interstitial fluid?water surrounding cells within tissues
  38. 38what is plasma?the water found within the blood stream
  39. 39What are leukocytes?White blood cells involved in immune response
  40. 40What are the 4 main plasma proteins?*albumins (50%)- major contributors to osmotic pressure of plasma, transport lipids, steroid hormones
    * globulins (35%)- transport ions, hormones, lipids; immune function
    * fibrinogen (4%)- essential component of clotting system; can be converted to insoluble fibrin
    * regulatory proteins (<1%)- enzymes, proenzymes, hormones
  41. 41What is the source of most plasma proteins?Liver
  42. 42Describe Erythrocytesbioconcave, no nucleus or membrane bound organelles
    production requires folic acid & vitamin B12
    Transports O2 and CO2
    Significance of shape: large surface area:volume ratio; form stacks that smoothly flow through narrow vessels; bend and flex through capillaries
  43. 43What are neutrophils?The most abundant phagocyte in the blood; contain extensive lysosomes - leukocyte
  44. 44what are basophils?Leukocyte, release histamine and heparin
  45. 45what are monocytes?leukocyte, can leave the blood stream and differentiate into powerful phagocytes called macrophages
  46. 46what are platelets?Anuclear cell-fragments formed from larger megakarocytes that are involved in blood clotting
  47. 47All blood cells are formed where?bone marrow
  48. 48where do some lymphocytes undergo additional maturation?thymus gland
  49. 49What is hematopoiesis?the process by which the formed elements of blood develop. in adults, blood cells are formed in red bone marrow from pluripotent stem cells.
  50. 50What is erythropoiesis?the part of hematopoiesis that deals with the production of RBC's. It increases when states of hypoxia stimulate the kidneys to release the hormone EPO.
  51. 51what is hypoxia?O2 deficiency
  52. 52What does EPO do?circulates to the red marrow and speeds up the maturation and release of immature red cells
  53. 53What are reticulocytes?the rate or erythropoiesis is measure by the number of immature RBC's (called reticulocytes) in the peripheral circulation. A low retic count indicates a low rate of erythropoiesis.
  54. 54What is the normal range of the RBC's being retics?1-2%
  55. 55what is hemoglobin?a complex protein with 4 iron-containing heme groups. Each heme group can reversibly bind to one oxygen molecule; therefore, each molecule of hemoglobin is capable of carrying four oxygen molecules.
  56. 56What happens during and after differentiation?During, RBC's synthesize large amounts of hemoglobin. Once hemoglobin production is complete, the RBC's eject their nucles and organelles, and take on the shape of a Bioconcave disk. Once differentiated, the RBC cannot replicate, synthesize protein, or produce ATP from aerobic pathways and only live for 120 days
  57. 57What is anemia?a condition of insufficient RBC's or hemoglobin. Erythropoiesis
  58. 58What is sickle-cell anemia?an autosomal recessive disorder. a genetic defect in the primary DNA sequence leads to production of a faulty Hb beta chain, and RBCs that take on a rigid, sickle-shape. Sickling decreases the cells' flexibility and results in a variety of complication; life expectancy is shortened.
  59. 59What is RBC production controlled by?O2 saturation in the blood, when this fails the kidney released the hormone erythropoietin.
  60. 60What does RBC production require?Fe, protein, vitamins B12 and folic acid
  61. 61How is the number of each type of blood cell that is produced determined by?signals that stem cells receive in the form of hormones.
  62. 62Where are most white blood cells located and what are the two groups?located in connective tissue proper or organs of the lymphoid system. the groups depending on whether they contain conspicuous chemical filled cytoplasmic granules are granulocytes ( include the neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) and agranulocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes)
  63. 63What are the main roles of eosinphils and how many lobes do they have?2 lobes, and main role is to release substances that fight multicellular pathogens.
  64. 64Where do basophils migrate?to site of inhury --> release histamine, which dilates blood vessels
  65. 65what are the 3 types of lymphocytes?a) T cells: attack foreign cells
    b) B cells: produce antibodies
    c) Natural Killer Cells: destruction of abnormal tissue cell
  66. 66Describe the 3 stages of hemostasis:1) Vascular spasms- smooth muscle contraction caused by reflex pain response and chemicals released from endothelial cells; blood vessels constrict preventing blood loss.
    2) Platelet Plug Formation- platelets stick to the exposed collagen from the damaged endothelium of vessel. Once stuck they release serotonin and Thromboxane A, which leads to further constriction and platelet aggregation, leading to a temporary plug.
    3) Coagulation- soluble fibrinogen is converted to insoluble fibrin fibers which stabilize the blood clot. This series of events is caused by the activation of Prothrombin A and can be achieved by intrinsic or extrinsic mechanisms.
  67. 67What is coagulation?blood clotting
  68. 68What are the different types of blood?Type A: contain antigen A, so produce an anti-B
    Type B: contain antigen B, so produce an anti-A
    Type AB: both antigens, neither antibodies
    Type O: neither antigen, both antibodies
  69. 69Explain tunica externa:connective tissue containing
    a) in arteries: collagen and elastic fibers
    b) in veins: elastic fibers and bundles of smooth muscle
    anchors, supports and reinforces blood vessel
  70. 70What are elastic arteries?largest arteries includes aorta and pulmonary trunk
    tunic media: high density of elastic fibers and relatively little smooth muscle
    they transport large volumes of blood away from the heart (function as a pressure reservoir, momentarily storing mechanical energy; transmit energy to keep blood moving after semilunar valves close)
    provides resilience and dampens the changing pressure due ventricle systole and diastole.
  71. 71What are muscular arteries?thickest tunic media with lots of smooth muscle, function is to carry blood to skeletal muscle and organs and are important as pressure points
  72. 72What are arterioles?branch within organs, some tunica externa absent. Tunic media: 1 or 2 layers of smooth muscle. Function is to control distribution of blood to capillary beds and constriction and dilation of arterioles help to regulate blood pressure
  73. 73What are capillaries?microscopic, form extensive branching networks through most tissues
    consist of an endothelial tube inside a delicate basal lamina, the cells are joined loosely and there is an absence of tight junction
  74. 74What are the 2 major types of capillaries?1) continuous capillaries: most common, endothelial cells are arranged in a single layer or multi layer
    2a) fenestrated capillaries: endothelial cells have pores allows exchange of H2O and solutes; kidneys
    2b) Sinusoids: similar to above, between adjacent endothelial cells; liver and spleen
  75. 75what is the role of precapillary sphincter?band of smooth muscle at entrance to capillary constriction- reduces flow and diverts flow to other branches
    dilation- increases flow into capillary
    typically alternating- results in pulses of blood
    controlled by local chemical factors
  76. 76what is vasomotion?constriction/dilation of precapillary sphincters several times per minute that changes the blood flow through capillary beds
  77. 77Do veins carry high pressure blood? why?no, walls tend to be thinner, although they still contain smooth muscle and are capable of venoconstriction
  78. 78what are the functions of veins?1) low resistance vessels to return blood to heart
    2) blood reservoir- because of thin walls, reduced smooth muscle, veins are more expandable than arteries, so can accommodate large changes in blood volume; vessel walls will stretch or recoil 8x as much as arteries.
  79. 79what are the factors that influence flow through veins?1) low pressure in right atria
    2) gravity
    3) sympathetic input
    4) muscular pump
    5) respiratory pump
  80. 80the respiratory system is divided into:upper and lower
  81. 81how many lobes does each lung haveright- 3; superior, middle and inferior
    left- 2; superior and inferior
  82. 82what are alveoli?air filled pockets within the lungs where gas exchange takes place
  83. 83what are the functions of the nose and nasal cavity?1) traps large airborne particles
    2) airway when mouth is closed
    3) moistens and warms air prevents alveoli from chilling or drying out
    4) secretions keep surfaces moist and clean
    5) resonating chamber for voice
    6) houses olfactory receptors
    7) breathing out through nose, allows heat to be recaptured and moisture to condense... preventing heat and water loss
  84. 84what is the pharynx?common passageway for air and food; opens into both larynx and esophagus
    is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharyx
  85. 85what are the components of the respiratory defense system?1) mucous cells and mucous glands- produce mucus that bathes exposed surfaces
    2) cilia-sweep debris trapped in mucus toward pharynx
    3) filtration- in nasal cavity removes large particles
    4) alveolar ____ engulf small particles that reach lungs
  86. 86what is the larynx?a cartilaginous structure that surrounds and protects the glottis. connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea.
    made up of 9 pieces of cartilage- thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and tracheal cartilage
  87. 87What happens to the epiglottis during swallowing?it folds back over the glottis to prevent entry of food and liquids into the respiratory tract
  88. 88what are the layers of the trachea?1) mucosa: pseudostratified columnar epithelium and lamina propria
    2) submucosa: connective tissue and mucous glands
    3) hyaline cartilage
  89. 89how many bronchopulmonary segments are on each of the lungs?r- 10
    l- 8 or 9
  90. 90each terminal bronchiole delivers air to a single ______pulmonary lobule
  91. 91alveolar ducts end at ____alveolar sacs- common chambers connected to many individual alveoli
  92. 92each pulmonary lobule is supplied by:pulmonary arteries, and veins, a nerve, and a lymphatic vessel
  93. 93elastic fibers do what?help maintain relative positions of alveoli and capillaries. elastic fibers recoil reduces alveoli size and helps push air out of lungs
  94. 94alveolar simple squamous epitheliumconsists of thin delicate pneumocytes type 1 which allow for gas exchange
    patrolled by alveolar macrophages
    contains pneumocytes 2
  95. 95what is surfactant and what would happen without it?coats alveolar surfaces and reduces surface tension, without it the surface tension would be so high that the alveoli would collapse
  96. 96what are the two integrated processes of respiration1) external- includes all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the environment
    2) internal respiration- involves the uptake of O2 and production of CO2 within individual cells
  97. 97what are the 3 processes of external respiration?1) pulmonary ventilation
    2) gas exchange
    3) transport of O2 and CO2
  98. 98what is pulmonary ventilation?the physical movement of air in and out of the respiratory tract. provides alveolar ventilation
  99. 99what is atmospheric pressure and Boyle's law?the weigh of air, and Boyle's Law defines the relationship between gas pressure and volume
    P=1/V
  100. 100Volume of thoracic cavity changes with ___expansion or contraction of diaphragm of rib cage. while we breathe in volume increases and pressure decreases, while we breathe out volume decreases and pressure increases
  101. 101what happens during normal quite inhalation vs. laboured inhalation?quiet- diaphragm and intercostals contract
    laboured- sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor also contract
  102. 102what happens during normal quite exhalation vs. laboured exhalation?quiet- diaphragm and external intercostals relax
    laboured- abdominal and internal intercostal muscles contract
  103. 103what are the 3 factors that affect compliance?1) connective tissue structure supporting the lungs
    2) level of surfactant production
    3) mobility of the thoracic cage: sometimes affected by arthritis, broken rib, and pneumonia
  104. 104what is intrapleural pressure?pressure between visceral and parietal pleurae as recoil of elastic fibers pull against fluid bonds between visceral and parietal pleurae and between lungs and chest wall and diaphragm
  105. 105what is tidal volume?the amount of air moved in and out of lungs in a single respiratory cycle
  106. 106what are the 3 mechanics of breathing?1) diaphragm- responsible for drawing 75% of air into lungs
    2) external intercostal muscles- responsible for drawing 25% of air into lungs
    3) accessory muscles assist in elevating ribs
  107. 107what are the 2 modes of breathing?1) quiet breathing: true breathing- involves active inhalation and passive exhalation using two methods: a) diaphragmatic breathing or deep breathing and b) costal breathing or shallow breathing dominated by the external intercostals
    2) forced breathing: greather breathing-involves active inhalation and exhalation, assisted by accessory muscles, and maximum levels occur in exhaustion
  108. 108what controls your respiratory rate and tidal volume?local regulation and respiratory control centers in the brain
  109. 109what are the 4 pulmonary volumes?1) resting tidal volume- in a normal respiratory cycle
    2) expiratory reserve volume (ERV)- after a normal exhalation
    3) residual volume- minimal volume after max exhalation
    4) minimal volume- volume if both lungs collapse
    5) inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)- after a normal inspiration
  110. 110what does gas exchange depend on?1) partial pressures of the gases
    2) diffusion of molecules between gas and liquid
  111. 111What do all the partial pressures together add up to ?760 mm Hg
  112. 112what is Henry's Lawit says that increasing the partial pressure of a gas "over" ( in contact with) a solution will result in more of the gas dissolving into the solution
  113. 113What happens during gas exchange?oxygenated blood mixes with unoxygenated blood from conducting passageways. lowers the pO2 of blood entering systemic circuit
  114. 114The _____ Effect steps:1- CO2 diffused into RBC
    2- an enzyme, catalyzes reaction with H2O
    3- produces carbonic acid which
    4- dissociates with hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion
    5- hydrogen ions then diffuse out of RBC lowering pH
  115. 115CO2 in the bloodstream may be:1) converted to carbonic acid
    2) bound to protein portion of Hb
    3) dissolved in plasma
  116. 116what are the 5 sensory modifiers of respiratory center activities?1) chemoreceptors
    2) baroreceptors
    3) stretch receptors
    4) irritating physical or chemical stimuli
    5) other sensations

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midterm Anatomy and Physiology Midterm 2 Flashcards on Untitled, created by Kristen Plandowski on 22/03/2016.
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