Abnormality

Question	Answer
3 ASSUMPTIONS of the BIOLOGICAL MODEL	- Caused by physical factors - Abnormality's inherited: passed down from parent to child. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to establish concordance rates to test genetic predisposition - Biochemical and/or neuroanatomic changes: damaged brain structure, neurotransmitters or hormones
STUDY: Abnormality's inherited	HOLLAND ET AL 56% concordance for identical twins 5% concordance for non-identical twins for anorexia nervosa
EXAMPLE: Neurotransmitters and Hormones Abnormality	Low Serotonin ---> Depression High Dopamine ---> Schizophrenia
STRENGTH #1 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL	PHYSIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Brain scans provide us with objective findings
STRENGTH #2 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL	SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) for Depression
LIMITATION #1 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL	NO DISORDER IS PURELY GENETIC Individuals inherit SUSCEPTIBILITY but disorder only develops if individual's exposed to stress
STUDY: Susceptibility not purely genetic	GOTTESMAN & SHIELDS Identical twins 50%
Model that says individuals only inherit susceptibility but disorder develops if exposed to stress	DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL
LIMITATION #2 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL	DETERMINISTIC Too rigid - there are clear cognitive elements
3 ASSUMPTIONS of PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH	- Unconscious personality conflicts - Fixation @ psychosexual stage - Unresolved conflicts in early childhood
What does it mean that it's INHERITED?	Passed down from parent to child. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to establish concordance rates to test genetic predisposition
UNCONSCIOUS PERSONALITY CONFLICTS	Conflicts between ID, Ego and Superego
ID	Pleasure Principle Desire for immediate gratification
EGO	Rational Part
SUPEREGO	Moral part of our personality
UNDERDEVELOPED EGO	Loss of contact with reality
DOMINANT ID	Irrational and pleasure seeking
DOMINANT SUPEREGO	Excessive guilt bc of moral conscience
EGO protects itself against ANXIETY using	Defence Mechanisms
Fixation: ORAL	0-1 Mouth, Tongue, Lips Weaning Off Smoking/Overeating
Fixation: ANAL	1-3 Anus Toilet training Orderliness/Messiness
Fixation: PHALLIC	3-6 Genitals Oedipus/Electra Deviancy
Fixation: LATENT	6-12 No fixation - at this point defence mechanisms are in action
Fixation: GENITAL	12+ Genitals Matured stage if got over every other stage
STRENGTH #1 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL	INFLUENTIAL Importance and the power of the human mind in the development of abnormal behaviour
STRENGTH #2 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL	REMOVES RESPONSIBILITY Comes from unconscious mind over which the individual has no conscious control Creates greater sympathy Its therapies are more humane (i.e. talking)
LIMITATION #1 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL	LACKS FALSIFIABILITY Impossible to test scientifically which is a key criterion of science
LIMITATION #2 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL	TOO MUCH FOCUS ON PAST Overemphasises childhood influences and sexuality and ignores current difficulties. New approach acknowledges this and recognises role of inadequate relationships + everyday problems
4 assumptions of BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH	- All behaviour's learned - abnormal behaviour's no different to normal one - Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Mind is an unnecessary concept in understanding abnormal behaviour
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING	Neutral Stimulus = No Response Unconditioned Stim. = Unconditioned Res. NS + UCS = UCR Conditioned Stim. = Conditioned Response
OPERANT CONDITIONING	Positive or negative reinforcement Used w/Anti-Social Personality Disorder
Extension of Behaviourism: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY	Attention \| Retention Reproduction \| Motivation Learn new abnormal behaviours by observational learning. More likely to model, imitate and adopt the behaviour. Applied to the dev. of eating disorders
STRENGTH #1 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL	CAN BE TESTED Clear predictions that can be tested and measured objectively w/out bias Focuses on observable behaviours rather than hidden things.
Example of Conditioning	LITTLE ALBERT Conditioned to fear a pet rat
STRENGTH #2 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL	FOCUSES ON PRESENT, NOT PAST Here and now rather than the past important to sort out present symptoms Recognises the importance of the current environment in shaping our behaviour
LIMITATION #1 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL	REDUCTIONIST Reduces all behaviour down to the basic level of learning via association or reinforcement - most behaviour's more complex than this and w/some cognitive elements
LIMITATION #2 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL	COUNTER EVIDENCE Conditioning theories for phobias can't explain why many people have fears of things they've never come across i.e. Schizophrenia More biological - behaviourist not the sole explanation for the aquisition of disorders
3 ASSUMPTIONS of the COGNITIVE APPROACH	- How people process incoming info is key to understanding abnormality - Result of having more negative automatic thoughts and/or distorted thinking - Make more inaccurate attributions + irrational expectations
STUDY: Maladaptive behaviour's the result of faulty thinking.	ELLIS - everyone has rational and irrational thoughts at times
BECK'S Cognitive Triad	Negative views on: World Future Oneself
STRENGTH #1 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH	RESEARCH SUPPORT Abela & D'Alessandru Pre-test identified students at risk of depression. After they didn't get into uni the ones who were more susceptible were the ones to develop depression FACE VALIDITY
STRENGTH #2 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH	POWER TO CHANGE Empowers individual - free will - it increases the self-belief of the individual to take responsibility for changing their undesirable behaviour
LIMITATION #1 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH	CAUSE OR EFFECT Difficult to establish which comes first.
BECK's assumption about cause or effect	Pointed out they may be consequence rather than a cause. Without understanding which causes the other we may actually just address the symptoms rather than the cause
LIMITATION #2 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH	INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSIBLE Not enough emphasis to other possible contributing factors Doesn't take life events or family problems may have contributed to the psychological disorder Criticised because it raises the ethical question of whether people have the right to say that someone's belief system's faulty
FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY	People who cannot cope with the demands of everyday life. Abnormal behaviour interferes with day-to-day living
STUDY: ROSENHAN & SELIGMAN Related to possessing characteristics such as...	Unpredictability High levels of personal distress
LIMITATION #1	MAY NOT BE OUTCOME This could be the cause of a psychological disorder. A lot of other factors may be perceived as not functioning adequately when it may not actually be the case
LIMITATION #2	APPEARS DYSFUNCTIONAL BUT MAY BE FUNCTIONAL Abnormal behaviour may lead to welcome extra attention for the individual or act as a strategy to not address their problems
LIMITATION #3	WHO DECIDES WHAT'S ADEQUATE Context is important - adequate is different for different people
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH	Starts from what's normal/healthy and works back from that. JAHODA suggests that normal behaviour includes: - Positive Attitude - Self-Actualisation - Resistant to Stress - Personal Autonomy - Accurate Perception of Reality - Adapting to + Mastering Environment
LIMITATION #1	IDEAL'S IMPOSSIBLE Doesn't state how far a person must deviate before being defined as abnormal? Makes psychologically healthy people anxious
LIMITATION #2	ROOTED IN WESTERN SOCIETY Self-actualisation may be seen as a key goal in life within some cultures but not others. May be abnormal to go after your own goals in certain cultures
LIMITED #3	CANT MEASURE MENTAL HEALTH OBJECTIVELY
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS	Definition defines abnormality in terms of deviation. Standards of acceptable behaviour that are set by the social group. Concerned with antisocial or undesirable behaviour
LIMITATION #1	SOCIAL NORMS CHANGE Homosexuality in DSM illness until 1980
LIMITATION #2	CULTURAL RELATIVITY Specific to a particular culture or society i.e. Dani society wait 2 years after marriage before having sex.
LIMITATION #3	CONTEXT NEEDS TO BE CONSIDERED
When is Electroconvulsive Therapy used?	Only in SEVERE cases of depression when patients have not responded to other treatments. Aims to stimulate the neuroanatomy
How is ECT conducted?	Small electrical current - uni or bilateral 6-12 sessions 2-3 times a week General aesthetic + muscle relaxant Brain's stimulated using electrodes Controlled series of electrical pulses Seizure lasts a minute 5-10 minutes: regain consciousness Induces neurotransmitter changes
STRENGTH #1 of ECT	EFFECTIVE IN SHORT TERM 60-70% improve with ECT 60% become depressed again in the next year
STRENGTH #2 of ECT	SAVES LIVES No other treatment works depression can lead to suicide
LIMITATION #1 of ECT	SIDE EFFECTS Dangerous side effects such as bone fractures, memory loss and confusion Can impair memory, more severe w/adolescents, children, elderly and pregnant
LIMITATION #2 of ECT	ETHICAL ISSUES Not in a position to give a truly informed consent about treatment 59% of 700 patients hadn't consented
2 TYPES of ANTI-DEPRESSANTS	MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOIs) SELECTIVE SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSRIs)
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs)	Increased levels of noradrenaline - not the first choice because of side effects with some foods.
XXX	XXX
Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)	Increased levels of serotonin Milder depression Reduce symptoms in 65% of patients Less severe side effects
Anti-Psychotic Drugs	Treat more bizarre symptoms like schizophrenia Reduce the effects of dopamine Reduce intensity + frequency of delusions
STRENGTH #1 of DRUG THERAPY	EFFECTIVE - TAMMINGA Anti-psychotic drug therapies are successful Reduce symptoms and suffering Patients get fewer extreme symptoms 40% don't feel better in other ways Mixed success
STRENGTH #2 of DRUG THERAPY	EASY + COST EFFECTIVE Requires little effort from the user Many clinicians advocate a mix of chemotherapy Easy to administer
LIMITATION #1 of DRUG THERAPY	ONLY TREAT SYMPTOMS Reductionist Ignores cognitive emotional and environmental influences PINQUART Reviewed anti-depressants & psychological therapies = psychological therapies more effective
LIMITATION #2 of DRUG THERAPY	SIDE EFFECTS 1st generation anti-psychotic = movement disorders + damage to immune system Can occur immediately after Relief of symptoms often only becomes apparent after 2-4 weeks Some patients stop before they work.
2 TYPES of PSYCHOANALYSIS	FREE ASSOCIATION DREAM ANALYSIS
FREE ASSOCIATION	Uncover material from unconscious mind Get around defines mechanisms put up by EGO using FREE-RECALL
FREE RECALL	Urged to report any thoughts or feelings that come to mind. Clients must ensure they don't censor any material Recollections reveal other thoughts and memories, which extend as far back as childhood.
ROLE OF THERAPIST in FREE ASSOCIATION	Occasional interference identify key themes and ideas that can be analysed further
DREAM ANALYSIS	Interpreting symbolic imagery Normal barriers to unconscious material are lifted when we're asleep Dreams are WISH FULFILMENT: ID's desire for sexual and aggressive gratification
DREAM ANALYSIS 2 types of content + process	MANIFEST content: obvious + symbolic LATENT content: actual meaning DREAMWORK: process of distortion
STRENGTH #1 of PSYCHOANALYSIS	EFFECTIVE BERGIN: 10k patients 80% benefited & 65% other therapies EYSENCK: 44% improved 66% through spontaneous remission
STRENGTH #2 of PSYCHOANALYSIS	ACKNOWLEDGEMENT of COMPLEXITY Complicated beings - adult disorders may have roots in childhood and in repressed material Recognises that abnormality's a complex behaviour to address and different methods may be required to achieve success
LIMITATION #1 of PSYCHOANALYSIS	LENGTHY TREATMENT Unconscious conflicts are deeply buried Can be expensive Brief therapy introduced
LIMITATION #2 of PSYCHOANALYSIS	ETHICAL ISSUES Confronting clients with distressing material during the course of analysis shouldn't leave the situation in a worse psychological condition Effects can be traumatic Produces false memory syndrome
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION	Behavioural therapy using classical conditioning. Impossible to experience the two opposing emotions of fear and relaxations at the same time. Taught deep muscle relaxation techniques
5 STEPS OF SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION	1. HOW TO RELAX - incompatible w/anxiety 2. DESENSITIZATION HIERARCHY w/therapist Come up with a series of imagined scenes 3. GRADUAL working through, visualising and engaging in complete relaxation 4. MASTERED one step --> remain relaxed 5. DONE - mastered the feared situation
STRENGTH #1 of SD	EFFECTIVE KLOSKO ET AL Success rates: 87% panic free 50% took anxiety drugs 36% placebo 33% no treatment
STRENGTH #2 of SD	MORE APPROPRIATE Requires less effort on patients' part CBT and psychoanalysis require patients to play a more active part + less traumatic
LIMITATION #1 of SD	DIFFERENCE W/IMAGERY Relies on clients' abilities to imagine the fearful situation. Can be ineffective Careful monitoring to ensure that there are no long-term negative consequences
LIMITATION #2 of SD	SYMPTOM SUBSTITUTION Focuses only on symptoms + ignores the cause of abnormal behaviour Problems can manifest in other ways Behaviourists disagree bc they think the behavioural symptoms are the disorder
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY	Puts control back into the clients own hands - provides you with necessary skills to manage problems Find ways to cope with new situations challenging faulty or irrational thought processes (COGNITIVE) and any resulting behaviour (BEHAVIOURAL) causing the long term positive alterations to thoughts and outlooks
BECK'S COGNITIVE THERAPY	1.) Identify problem 2,) Set the desired goal 3.) Challenge negative thoughts (Reality Testing) 4.) Behavioural techniques to encourage positive behaviour 5.) Small goals - sense of effectiveness 6.) Problem solving skills 7.) New schemas
STRENGTH #1 of CBT	EFFECTIVE RUSH ET AL At least as effective as heating depression as anti-depressants BLACKBURN + MOORHEAD Significantly superior to anti-depressants especially in a period of more than a year
STRENGTH #2 of CBT	DIVERSE Most widely used therapy by clinical psychologists in the NHS bc of short-term and economic factors Adapted to treat many conditions including management of stress HIGH practical application
LIMITATION #1 of CBT	NOT FOR EVERYONE Depends on type and severity of disorder Cant work for schizophrenia bc they experienced disturbance of thought or severe depression bc can't concentrate
LIMITATION #2 of CBT	ETHICAL CONCERNS Too directive Therapists can abuse their power of control over patients who can become too dependent. More ethical than psychoanalysis where the therapist holds ALL the power and expertise Should be handled by experienced and trained therapists

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