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Question | Answer |
3 ASSUMPTIONS of the BIOLOGICAL MODEL | - Caused by physical factors - Abnormality's inherited: passed down from parent to child. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to establish concordance rates to test genetic predisposition - Biochemical and/or neuroanatomic changes: damaged brain structure, neurotransmitters or hormones |
STUDY: Abnormality's inherited | HOLLAND ET AL 56% concordance for identical twins 5% concordance for non-identical twins for anorexia nervosa |
EXAMPLE: Neurotransmitters and Hormones Abnormality | Low Serotonin ---> Depression High Dopamine ---> Schizophrenia |
STRENGTH #1 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL | PHYSIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE Brain scans provide us with objective findings |
STRENGTH #2 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL | SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) for Depression |
LIMITATION #1 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL | NO DISORDER IS PURELY GENETIC Individuals inherit SUSCEPTIBILITY but disorder only develops if individual's exposed to stress |
STUDY: Susceptibility not purely genetic | GOTTESMAN & SHIELDS Identical twins 50% |
Model that says individuals only inherit susceptibility but disorder develops if exposed to stress | DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL |
LIMITATION #2 of BIOLOGICAL MODEL | DETERMINISTIC Too rigid - there are clear cognitive elements |
3 ASSUMPTIONS of PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH | - Unconscious personality conflicts - Fixation @ psychosexual stage - Unresolved conflicts in early childhood |
What does it mean that it's INHERITED? | Passed down from parent to child. Family, twin and adoption studies are used to establish concordance rates to test genetic predisposition |
UNCONSCIOUS PERSONALITY CONFLICTS | Conflicts between ID, Ego and Superego |
ID | Pleasure Principle Desire for immediate gratification |
EGO | Rational Part |
SUPEREGO | Moral part of our personality |
UNDERDEVELOPED EGO | Loss of contact with reality |
DOMINANT ID | Irrational and pleasure seeking |
DOMINANT SUPEREGO | Excessive guilt bc of moral conscience |
EGO protects itself against ANXIETY using | Defence Mechanisms |
Fixation: ORAL | 0-1 Mouth, Tongue, Lips Weaning Off Smoking/Overeating |
Fixation: ANAL | 1-3 Anus Toilet training Orderliness/Messiness |
Fixation: PHALLIC | 3-6 Genitals Oedipus/Electra Deviancy |
Fixation: LATENT | 6-12 No fixation - at this point defence mechanisms are in action |
Fixation: GENITAL | 12+ Genitals Matured stage if got over every other stage |
STRENGTH #1 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL | INFLUENTIAL Importance and the power of the human mind in the development of abnormal behaviour |
STRENGTH #2 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL | REMOVES RESPONSIBILITY Comes from unconscious mind over which the individual has no conscious control Creates greater sympathy Its therapies are more humane (i.e. talking) |
LIMITATION #1 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL | LACKS FALSIFIABILITY Impossible to test scientifically which is a key criterion of science |
LIMITATION #2 of PSYCHODYNAMIC MODEL | TOO MUCH FOCUS ON PAST Overemphasises childhood influences and sexuality and ignores current difficulties. New approach acknowledges this and recognises role of inadequate relationships + everyday problems |
4 assumptions of BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH | - All behaviour's learned - abnormal behaviour's no different to normal one - Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning - Mind is an unnecessary concept in understanding abnormal behaviour |
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING | Neutral Stimulus = No Response Unconditioned Stim. = Unconditioned Res. NS + UCS = UCR Conditioned Stim. = Conditioned Response |
OPERANT CONDITIONING | Positive or negative reinforcement Used w/Anti-Social Personality Disorder |
Extension of Behaviourism: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY | Attention | Retention Reproduction | Motivation Learn new abnormal behaviours by observational learning. More likely to model, imitate and adopt the behaviour. Applied to the dev. of eating disorders |
STRENGTH #1 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL | CAN BE TESTED Clear predictions that can be tested and measured objectively w/out bias Focuses on observable behaviours rather than hidden things. |
Example of Conditioning | LITTLE ALBERT Conditioned to fear a pet rat |
STRENGTH #2 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL | FOCUSES ON PRESENT, NOT PAST Here and now rather than the past important to sort out present symptoms Recognises the importance of the current environment in shaping our behaviour |
LIMITATION #1 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL | REDUCTIONIST Reduces all behaviour down to the basic level of learning via association or reinforcement - most behaviour's more complex than this and w/some cognitive elements |
LIMITATION #2 of the BEHAVIOURIST MODEL | COUNTER EVIDENCE Conditioning theories for phobias can't explain why many people have fears of things they've never come across i.e. Schizophrenia More biological - behaviourist not the sole explanation for the aquisition of disorders |
3 ASSUMPTIONS of the COGNITIVE APPROACH | - How people process incoming info is key to understanding abnormality - Result of having more negative automatic thoughts and/or distorted thinking - Make more inaccurate attributions + irrational expectations |
STUDY: Maladaptive behaviour's the result of faulty thinking. | ELLIS - everyone has rational and irrational thoughts at times |
BECK'S Cognitive Triad | Negative views on: World Future Oneself |
STRENGTH #1 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH | RESEARCH SUPPORT Abela & D'Alessandru Pre-test identified students at risk of depression. After they didn't get into uni the ones who were more susceptible were the ones to develop depression FACE VALIDITY |
STRENGTH #2 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH | POWER TO CHANGE Empowers individual - free will - it increases the self-belief of the individual to take responsibility for changing their undesirable behaviour |
LIMITATION #1 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH | CAUSE OR EFFECT Difficult to establish which comes first. |
BECK's assumption about cause or effect | Pointed out they may be consequence rather than a cause. Without understanding which causes the other we may actually just address the symptoms rather than the cause |
LIMITATION #2 of the COGNITIVE APPROACH | INDIVIDUAL'S RESPONSIBLE Not enough emphasis to other possible contributing factors Doesn't take life events or family problems may have contributed to the psychological disorder Criticised because it raises the ethical question of whether people have the right to say that someone's belief system's faulty |
FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY | People who cannot cope with the demands of everyday life. Abnormal behaviour interferes with day-to-day living |
STUDY: ROSENHAN & SELIGMAN Related to possessing characteristics such as... | Unpredictability High levels of personal distress |
LIMITATION #1 | MAY NOT BE OUTCOME This could be the cause of a psychological disorder. A lot of other factors may be perceived as not functioning adequately when it may not actually be the case |
LIMITATION #2 | APPEARS DYSFUNCTIONAL BUT MAY BE FUNCTIONAL Abnormal behaviour may lead to welcome extra attention for the individual or act as a strategy to not address their problems |
LIMITATION #3 | WHO DECIDES WHAT'S ADEQUATE Context is important - adequate is different for different people |
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL HEALTH | Starts from what's normal/healthy and works back from that. JAHODA suggests that normal behaviour includes: - Positive Attitude - Self-Actualisation - Resistant to Stress - Personal Autonomy - Accurate Perception of Reality - Adapting to + Mastering Environment |
LIMITATION #1 | IDEAL'S IMPOSSIBLE Doesn't state how far a person must deviate before being defined as abnormal? Makes psychologically healthy people anxious |
LIMITATION #2 | ROOTED IN WESTERN SOCIETY Self-actualisation may be seen as a key goal in life within some cultures but not others. May be abnormal to go after your own goals in certain cultures |
LIMITED #3 | CANT MEASURE MENTAL HEALTH OBJECTIVELY |
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS | Definition defines abnormality in terms of deviation. Standards of acceptable behaviour that are set by the social group. Concerned with antisocial or undesirable behaviour |
LIMITATION #1 | SOCIAL NORMS CHANGE Homosexuality in DSM illness until 1980 |
LIMITATION #2 | CULTURAL RELATIVITY Specific to a particular culture or society i.e. Dani society wait 2 years after marriage before having sex. |
LIMITATION #3 | CONTEXT NEEDS TO BE CONSIDERED |
When is Electroconvulsive Therapy used? | Only in SEVERE cases of depression when patients have not responded to other treatments. Aims to stimulate the neuroanatomy |
How is ECT conducted? | Small electrical current - uni or bilateral 6-12 sessions 2-3 times a week General aesthetic + muscle relaxant Brain's stimulated using electrodes Controlled series of electrical pulses Seizure lasts a minute 5-10 minutes: regain consciousness Induces neurotransmitter changes |
STRENGTH #1 of ECT | EFFECTIVE IN SHORT TERM 60-70% improve with ECT 60% become depressed again in the next year |
STRENGTH #2 of ECT | SAVES LIVES No other treatment works depression can lead to suicide |
LIMITATION #1 of ECT | SIDE EFFECTS Dangerous side effects such as bone fractures, memory loss and confusion Can impair memory, more severe w/adolescents, children, elderly and pregnant |
LIMITATION #2 of ECT | ETHICAL ISSUES Not in a position to give a truly informed consent about treatment 59% of 700 patients hadn't consented |
2 TYPES of ANTI-DEPRESSANTS | MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITORS (MAOIs) SELECTIVE SEROTONIN RE-UPTAKE INHIBITORS (SSRIs) |
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs) | Increased levels of noradrenaline - not the first choice because of side effects with some foods. |
XXX | XXX |
Selective Serotonin Re-Uptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) | Increased levels of serotonin Milder depression Reduce symptoms in 65% of patients Less severe side effects |
Anti-Psychotic Drugs | Treat more bizarre symptoms like schizophrenia Reduce the effects of dopamine Reduce intensity + frequency of delusions |
STRENGTH #1 of DRUG THERAPY | EFFECTIVE - TAMMINGA Anti-psychotic drug therapies are successful Reduce symptoms and suffering Patients get fewer extreme symptoms 40% don't feel better in other ways Mixed success |
STRENGTH #2 of DRUG THERAPY | EASY + COST EFFECTIVE Requires little effort from the user Many clinicians advocate a mix of chemotherapy Easy to administer |
LIMITATION #1 of DRUG THERAPY | ONLY TREAT SYMPTOMS Reductionist Ignores cognitive emotional and environmental influences PINQUART Reviewed anti-depressants & psychological therapies = psychological therapies more effective |
LIMITATION #2 of DRUG THERAPY | SIDE EFFECTS 1st generation anti-psychotic = movement disorders + damage to immune system Can occur immediately after Relief of symptoms often only becomes apparent after 2-4 weeks Some patients stop before they work. |
2 TYPES of PSYCHOANALYSIS | FREE ASSOCIATION DREAM ANALYSIS |
FREE ASSOCIATION | Uncover material from unconscious mind Get around defines mechanisms put up by EGO using FREE-RECALL |
FREE RECALL | Urged to report any thoughts or feelings that come to mind. Clients must ensure they don't censor any material Recollections reveal other thoughts and memories, which extend as far back as childhood. |
ROLE OF THERAPIST in FREE ASSOCIATION | Occasional interference identify key themes and ideas that can be analysed further |
DREAM ANALYSIS | Interpreting symbolic imagery Normal barriers to unconscious material are lifted when we're asleep Dreams are WISH FULFILMENT: ID's desire for sexual and aggressive gratification |
DREAM ANALYSIS 2 types of content + process | MANIFEST content: obvious + symbolic LATENT content: actual meaning DREAMWORK: process of distortion |
STRENGTH #1 of PSYCHOANALYSIS | EFFECTIVE BERGIN: 10k patients 80% benefited & 65% other therapies EYSENCK: 44% improved 66% through spontaneous remission |
STRENGTH #2 of PSYCHOANALYSIS | ACKNOWLEDGEMENT of COMPLEXITY Complicated beings - adult disorders may have roots in childhood and in repressed material Recognises that abnormality's a complex behaviour to address and different methods may be required to achieve success |
LIMITATION #1 of PSYCHOANALYSIS | LENGTHY TREATMENT Unconscious conflicts are deeply buried Can be expensive Brief therapy introduced |
LIMITATION #2 of PSYCHOANALYSIS | ETHICAL ISSUES Confronting clients with distressing material during the course of analysis shouldn't leave the situation in a worse psychological condition Effects can be traumatic Produces false memory syndrome |
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION | Behavioural therapy using classical conditioning. Impossible to experience the two opposing emotions of fear and relaxations at the same time. Taught deep muscle relaxation techniques |
5 STEPS OF SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION | 1. HOW TO RELAX - incompatible w/anxiety 2. DESENSITIZATION HIERARCHY w/therapist Come up with a series of imagined scenes 3. GRADUAL working through, visualising and engaging in complete relaxation 4. MASTERED one step --> remain relaxed 5. DONE - mastered the feared situation |
STRENGTH #1 of SD | EFFECTIVE KLOSKO ET AL Success rates: 87% panic free 50% took anxiety drugs 36% placebo 33% no treatment |
STRENGTH #2 of SD | MORE APPROPRIATE Requires less effort on patients' part CBT and psychoanalysis require patients to play a more active part + less traumatic |
LIMITATION #1 of SD | DIFFERENCE W/IMAGERY Relies on clients' abilities to imagine the fearful situation. Can be ineffective Careful monitoring to ensure that there are no long-term negative consequences |
LIMITATION #2 of SD | SYMPTOM SUBSTITUTION Focuses only on symptoms + ignores the cause of abnormal behaviour Problems can manifest in other ways Behaviourists disagree bc they think the behavioural symptoms are the disorder |
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY | Puts control back into the clients own hands - provides you with necessary skills to manage problems Find ways to cope with new situations challenging faulty or irrational thought processes (COGNITIVE) and any resulting behaviour (BEHAVIOURAL) causing the long term positive alterations to thoughts and outlooks |
BECK'S COGNITIVE THERAPY | 1.) Identify problem 2,) Set the desired goal 3.) Challenge negative thoughts (Reality Testing) 4.) Behavioural techniques to encourage positive behaviour 5.) Small goals - sense of effectiveness 6.) Problem solving skills 7.) New schemas |
STRENGTH #1 of CBT | EFFECTIVE RUSH ET AL At least as effective as heating depression as anti-depressants BLACKBURN + MOORHEAD Significantly superior to anti-depressants especially in a period of more than a year |
STRENGTH #2 of CBT | DIVERSE Most widely used therapy by clinical psychologists in the NHS bc of short-term and economic factors Adapted to treat many conditions including management of stress HIGH practical application |
LIMITATION #1 of CBT | NOT FOR EVERYONE Depends on type and severity of disorder Cant work for schizophrenia bc they experienced disturbance of thought or severe depression bc can't concentrate |
LIMITATION #2 of CBT | ETHICAL CONCERNS Too directive Therapists can abuse their power of control over patients who can become too dependent. More ethical than psychoanalysis where the therapist holds ALL the power and expertise Should be handled by experienced and trained therapists |
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