The Individual Differences Approach

Question	Answer
What was the aim of Rosenhan's study?	To see if sane individuals would be diagnosed as insane because they presented themselves to a psychiatric hospital claiming to have psychiatric symptoms.
How did the pseudopatients in Rosenhan's first experiment get into the psychiatric hospital?	Each pseudopatient phoned a hospital and asked for an appointment. On arrival he/she told the admissions officer that he/she has been hearing voices (empty, hollow, thud). Other than this symptom each pseudopatient stated the facts of their lives, except for their name, occupation, or reason for being at the hospital.
Why did Rosenhan choose the words empty, hollow and thud?	They indicated an existential crisis, a symptom not previously reported for schizophrenia.
What happened once the pseudopatients were admitted to the hospital in Rosenhan's first study?	They ceased to show symptoms of abnormality. They secretly did not take their medication, but otherwise followed the ward routine. They spend time making notes about their environment.
Why was Rosenhan's second study done?	The staff in one psychiatric hospital were informed on the results of the first study, which they found hard to believe. Therefore a follow-up study was organised at this hospital.
What happened in Rosenhan's second study?	The staff were told that some time during the next three months, one or more pseudopatients would try to be admitted to the hospital. Each member of staff were asked to rate all the patients who sought admission using a 10-point rating scale; where 1 and 2 reflect high confidence that the patient was a pseudopatient.
What happened in Rosenhan's third experiment?	He tested the behavior of staff members in the psychiatric hospitals. This was a field experiment conducted in four of the hospitals on a college campus. Either a pseudopatient or a young lady approached a staff member and asked questions. The pseudopatients did this as normally as possible and avoided asking any particular person more than once a day.
What questions did the pseudopatients ask in Rosenhan's third experiment?	Pardon me, Mr/Mrs/Dr X, could you tell me when I will be eligible for grounds privileges? Pardon me, Mr/Mrs/Dr X, could you tell me when will I be presented at the staff meeting? Pardon me, Mr/Mrs/Dr X, could you tell me when I am likely to be discharged?
What did Rosenhan find in his first study?	All patients were admitted and, except one, diagnosed as schizophrenic. Each was eventually discharged with a diagnosis of schizophrenia 'in remission'. The length of hospitalization had an average of 19 days. The average daily contact with medical staff had a mean of 6.8 minutes.
What did Rosenhan's second study find?	193 patients were admitted, none were pseudopatients but; 41 were judged with high confidence to be pseudopatients by at least one staff member. 23 were suspected by at least one psychiatrist. 19 were suspected by a psychiatrist and one other staff member.
What did Rosenhan's third study find?	When the pseudopatients asked questions only 4% of the psychiatrists and 0.5% of the nurses stopped. 2% in each group paused and chatted. When a young lady asked 6 questions, all staff members stopped and answered all questions, maintaining eye contact.
What did Rosenhan conclude?	The stickiness of psycho-diagnostic labels on perceptions of people; once someone is labelled as 'abnormal', all subsequent data about them is interpreted in that light. The staff treated the patients with little respect; this is depersonalizing and creates powerlessness.
What was the aim of Thigpen and Cleckley's study?	To report the treatment of one patient diagnosed with multiple personality disorder.
Who was Eve White?	A 25 year old married woman, who was referred to a psychiatrist, Dr. Thigpen, because she experienced severe headaches and blackouts that had no physical cause.
How did a letter Thigpen and Cleckley receive suggest another personality?	The letter was unsigned but clearly from EW because of the handwriting. The final paragraph was puzzling and playful which was out of character for EW. EW denied sending the letter but she remembered starting one.
What happened to EW after being confronted with the letter?	She because agitated and asked if hearing voices was a sign of insanity. At that moment a strange look came on her face, she put her hands to her head as if seized with pain. After a tense moment of silence, her hands dropped and with a quick smile and bright voice she said 'Hi there, Doc!'.
What was Thigpen and Cleckley's procedure?	They spent 14 months interviewing EW and EB, her husband and family were also interviewed. Quantitative measures were also used. EW and EB were both tested using psychometric tests (IQ and memory) and two projective personality tests (drawing human figures and ink blots). EEG was also used to compare brain activity.
When did Eve's the third personality appear?	During the course of therapy, the blackouts, headaches and voices disappeared and she managed to do well at her job. After 8 months, the headaches and blackouts returned. EB was interviewed and denied causing these and she had been experiencing them also.During hypnosis EW shut her head and closed her eyes and Jane appeared.
What did the psychometric tests in Thigpen and Cleckley's study find?	EW has an IQ of 110 and performance on the memory test was higher than the IQ. EB had an IQ of 104 and performance on the memory test was on par with the IQ.
What did the projective personality tests in Thigpen and Cleckley's study find?	EW - rigid not capable of dealing with her hostility. Conflict in role as a wife and mother, resulting in anxiety. Indicate repression [subduing emotions, thoughts and memories]. EB - Able to conform to the environment; healthier profile. Indicate regression [a wish to return to an earlier period of time].
What did the projective personality tests in Thigpen and Cleckley's study suggest?	The existence of dual personalities was due to a wish to return to an earlier stage of life (EB was EW's maiden name). EW's hostility toward her roles as wife and mother made her feel guilty, this activated the defense mechanism of repression, removing the conflict from her conscious. The role of EB allows her to discharge her feelings of hostility towards EW and others.
What did the EEG results in Thigpen and Cleckley's study show?	Tenseness was highest in EB, then EW, then Jane. EW and Jane had similar alpha rhythm, EB was a bit faster (on the borderline of abnormally fast). There was evidence of restlessness and generalized muscle tension in EB.
What was the aim of Griffiths' study?	To record the cognitive processes of regular fruit machine gamblers (RGs) to see if they were more irrational than non-regular fruit machine gamblers (NRGs).
What were Griffiths' three specific hypothesis?	1. There are no differences between RGs and NRGs in terms of skill. 2. RGs produce more irrational verbalizations when gambling than NRGs. 3. RGs regard themselves as more skilled at fruit-machine gambling than NRGs.
Who were Griffiths' participants?	60 participants, half were RGs (29M 1F) and half were NRGs (15M 15F). RGs gambled at least once a week, NRGs gambled once a month or less, but had used a fruit machine at least once in their lives. The participants were recruited through poster ads around a local university and college campus. A number of RGs were recruited via a gambler known to the author.
What was Griffiths' procedure?	Each participant was given £3 to gamble (30 gambles) on a fruit machine in a local arcade. They were asked to try stay on their machines for at least 60 gambles, i.e. until they break even. At the end they could either keep the £3 or keep on gambling.
What were the dependent variables used to assess skill in Griffiths' study?	Total plays, total time, play rate (plays per min), end stake, wins, win rate, time (minutes between each win), and the number of plays between each win.
What was the thinking aloud condition in Griffiths' study?	Half of the participants were randomly allocated to this condition. They were given the following instructions; - Say everything that goes through your mind, even if not clearly structured. - Speak clearly. - Do not hesitate to use fragmented sentences. - Do not try to justify your thoughts. The verbalizations were recorded using a lapel microphone and later transcribed.
How were participant's verbalizations analysed in Griffiths' study?	They were analysed by performing a content analysis of the transcriptions, this was done by producing a list of behavioral categories.
What type of interviews did all of Griffiths' participants receive?	Semi-structured interviews. They were asked their opinion about the level of skill involved in fruit machine playing and asked to judge their own skill level.
What significant differences were found on the dependent variables in Griffith's study?	RGs had a higher playing rate (8 gambles per minute) compared to NRGs (6 gambles per minute). RGs who thought aloud had a lower win eate in number of gambles than NRGs. It was also noticed that 71% of RGs who broke even after 60 gambles carried on until they has lost everything, only 29% on NRGs did.
What were the results of the post-experimental interviews in Griffith's study?	Most NRGs said that playing fruit machines is 'mostly chance', most RGs said it was 'equal chance and skill'. NRGs viewed themselves as below average skill level, Rs said 'above average' or 'totally skilled'. RGs identified the following skills in playing fruit machine; knowledge of 'feature skills', knowledge of when the machine will pay out, and knowledge of not playing when it has just paid out.
What did the thinking aloud data find in Griffiths' study?	RGs made more verbalizations in the categories of personification of the fruit machine and reference to the number system. NRGs made more verbalizations in the categories of questions relating to confusion, statements relating to confusion and miscellaneous utterances, e.g. I think i'll get a bag of chips after this. RGs referred to their mind going blank and feeling frustrated. RGs produced more irrational verbalizations (14%) than NRGs (2.5%).
What did Griffiths conclude?	The real difference between RGs and NRGs is cognitive; RGs think more skill is involved than there actually is. There are also cognitive differences in the way RGs react towards the machine itself, such as personification - although this may be a general tendency to personify something which one is in regular contact with.

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	Created by Beckie Vautier about 8 years ago