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| Question | Answer |
| Schweikert and Boruff 1986 | Tested immediate digit span for a number of different kinds of stimulus, like colour, letters, shapes etc and found that people consistently remembered as many items as they were able to pronounce in 1.5 to 2 seconds. Digit span for English speakers is considerably greater than for Arabic speakers, as they take longer to pronounce words. |
| Capacity of short term memory - Baddeley 1975 | Reading speed of participants was measured. Participants were presented with sets of five words on a screen. Words were taken from two sets, either one syllable words, or polysyllabic words. Participants wrote down the five words in serial order straight after presentation. They could remember considerably more short words than long words. They could recall as many words as they could say in about 2 seconds. Strong positive correlation between reading speed and memory span. Supports Schweikert and Boruff's findings. |
| Duration of short term memory - Peterson and Peterson 1959 | Participants briefly shown consonant trigram. They were asked to count back in threes from a specified number to stop rehearsal of the letters. After intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds participants were asked to recall the trigram. It was repeated using different trigrams. Participants remembered 80% of trigrams after 3 second interval. After 18 seconds, fewer than 10% of trigrams were remembered accurately. |
| Deliberate intention to recall - Sebrechts 1989 | Briefly presented participants with lists of three common nouns and then gave them an unexpected test where they had to remember in correct order. Correct recall fell to 1% after only 4 seconds. |
| Amount of information to be retained - Murdock 1961 | Presented participants with either one 3 letter word or three unrelated three letter words. They then had to do the counting back in threes thing. Forgetting for the three unrelated words was the same as the Peterson's study, yet the single three letter word was resistant to forgetting. Accurate recall level was still at 90% after 18 seconds. |
| Acoustic confusion - Conrad 1964 | Whether people encoded acoustically even if information was presented visually. Participants shown a random sequence of 6 consonants projected in rapid succession on the screen, they were either acoustically similar or dissimilar. Participants wrote down the letters in the same order that they appeared. Most errors in acoustically similar letters, even though they were presented visually, suggesting that items are stored acoustically in short term memory. |
| Duration of long term memory - Bahrick 1975 | See whether there was any difference between recognition and recall. Tracked down graduates from a particular high school. 392 participants shown photographs. Recognition group were given a list of names and had to apply them to the people in the photo. Recall group had to name the people in the photo without being given any names. In recognition group, 90% correct after 14 years after graduation, steadily declined until 60% correct after 47 years. In recall group 60% accurate after 7 years. Less than 20% after 47 years. |
| Thorough learning -Bahrick and Hall 1991 | Tested long term memory for algebra and geometry. People only taking maths up to high school level showed steady decline in accuracy of their recall over the years, whereas students who'd done a maths course at college showed high levels of accuracy even 55 years later. |
| Encoding in short term memory - Baddeley 1966 | To look at the effects of acoustic and semantic encoding in short term memory. Participants divided into four groups. Each group had five words taken from the following four categories: acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words, semantically dissimilar words. After hearing the five words they had to recall them in correct order. Acoustically similar words were much harder to recall in correct order, 55% accuracy. Words acoustically dissimilar 75% accuracy. Similarities of meaning had only small detrimental effect. Findings support Conrad 1961. |
| Encoding in long term memory - Baddely 1966 | To explore semantic and acoustic coding in long term memory. Participants divided into four groups, acoustically similar words, acoustically dissimilar words, semantically similar words and semantically dissimilar words. After 20 minute interval, in which they were given another task to do, participants had to recall the 10 words in correct order. Recall worse for semantically similar words, 55%, than for semantically dissimilar, 85%. Recall was the same for both acoustic ones. Concluded that long term memory makes use of semantic coding. |
| Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968 | Multi store model |
| Study on 'H.M' - Milner 1965 | H.M had severe memory impairment after brain surgery. Unable to retain new information, but able to talk normally and accurately recall events. When told about death of uncle, reacted with huge distress, and from then on kept asking about uncle and on every occasion reacted again with same level of distress. |
| Evidence in favour of multi store model - Glanzer and Cunitz 1966 | They wanted to find evidence of separate short term and long term memory stores. Participants were presented with a list of words, one at time, and then asked to correctly recall the words in any order. Participants divided into two groups, immediate recall group and delayed recall group, immediate said immediately, delayed had to count backwards for 30 seconds before recalling. Immediate recall remembered last and first words best. Delayed remembered beginning of list best. Both groups difficulty remembering words in middle. Both groups recalled words at the beginning of the list because they were stored in LTM. Words at end of list were still in STM. Supports concept of separate memory stores. |
| Dual task study - Baddeley and Hitch 1974 | Participants had to rehearse digit strings whilst carrying out verbal reasoning tasks. participants were able to recall six digit strings and perform accurately at the verbal reasoning tasks. Not compatible with multi store model of 7 slots. |
| How working memory model operates - Baddeley 1997 | Imagine walking through house |
| Evidence for phonological loop - Baddeley 1975 | Investigated word length effect but when participants were prevented from rehearsal by repeating 'la la la', the word length effect disappeared. The articulatory suppression task fills the phonological loop and therefore removes advantage of rehearsal. Since some words could be remembered, likely central executive takes over recall task. |
| Visual coding in short term memory -Brandimonte 1992 | Participants presented with six line-drawings of familiar images and asked to memorise them in order. Participants then asked to form a mental image of each one in turn and to subtract a specified part of the drawing. They then had to name the resulting image. Participants were able to name on average 2.7 of the six items. Another group of participants were given same task except had to repeat 'la la la'. This stopped them from converting the picture into a verbal code, which they would have done normally. They were actually more successful when identifying the subtracted image and were able to name 3.8 items correctly. because they'd encoded it visually, they were able to subtract a part of the visual image than the first group. Shows that the nature of the task may affect the type of coding used. If prevented from acoustic coding, visual coding used. |
| Simple tracking task - Baddeley 1973 | Participants had to hold a pointer in contact with a moving spot of light and at the same time had to do an imagery task. This was imagining a block capital F, and then starting in the bottom left, had to classify each angle as 'yes' if it included the bottom or the top line, or 'no' if it didn't. Participants found this very difficult. Suggests that the tracking and letter task were both competing for the limited resources in the visuo-spatial scratchpad, whereas the tracking and verbal task were using separate components which is why they could do it. |
| Richardson 1984 | Central executive is too vague and can be used to explain any kind of results, so it's difficult to falsify the working memory model. |
| Working memory in chess - Robbins 1996 | 20 chess players had to memorise positions of 16 chess pieces in 10 seconds. While memorising the positions, the participants either also engaged the central executive by generating random letter sequences purposely trying to not say any meaningful combinations, or they carried out an articulatory suppression task. They then had to arrange chess pieces on the board exactly how they were ten seconds ago. Participants in suppression task performed well. Participants in letter task performed badly. Impaired performance of letter people demonstrated that the central executive was involved in remembering chess pieces. Good performance of those doing suppression task shows phonological loop was not involved. |
| The case of Clive Wearing - Baddeley 1997 | Was left with extensive brain damage after an infection. Can still talk, write, read and sight read piano, yet cannot remember own wedding. Cannot lay down new memories, he is convinced he is 'waking up' for the first time every few minutes. |
| Miller 1956 | Digit span of 7, plus or minus 2. |
| Bower and Winzenz 1969 | Digit spans that are repeated within a series of immediate memory span trials become progressively easier for the participants to recall. This indicates that information stored in the long term memory is helping short term memory capacity temporarily. |
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