Flashcards
Psychology - memory
Cards in this deck (97)
- 1What is coding?Once information gets into the memory system, it is stored into different formats depending on the memory store. The process of converting one form to another is coding.
- 2Who did research on coding?Baddeley.
- 3What did Baddeley research?He gave a list of words to four groups of participants to remember. Participants were shown the words and asked to recall them in the right order. When they had to recall straight after they did worse with acoustically similar words. If recall was after 20 minutes they did worse on semantically similar words. LTM is coded semantically.
- 4What were the four groups?Group 1: acoustically similar
Group 2: acoustically dissimilar
Group 3: semantically similar
Group 4: semantically dissimilar - 5What is capacity?The amount of information that can be held in a memory store.
- 6Who did research on capacity?Jacobs.
- 7What did Jacobs find?Gives the participant 4 digits and ask them to recall in the correct order if this is correct they get an extra digit each time until they can not recall correctly. This determines their digit span. They mean span for digits was 9.3 and 7.3 for letters.
- 8What is digit span?A way of measuring the capacity of short term memory in terms of maximum number of digits that can be recalled in the correct order.
- 9What did Miller research?The capacity of STM is about 7 +/-2. However Miller noted people can recall 5 words as well as 5 letters. They do this by chunking.
- 10What is duration?The length of time information can be held in memory.
- 11Who researched duration of STM?Peterson and Peterson.
- 12What did Peterson and Peterson do?Tested 24 participants. Each did 8 trails, on each trail they were given a consonant syllable and a 3 digit number to remember. The student counted backwards from a 3 digit number to prevent rehearsal. They were told to stop after different amount of time (3,6,9,12,15 and 18 seconds)
- 13What did Peterson and Peterson find?The longer the retention interval the lower the % of correct responses.
- 14Who did research on the duration of LTM?Bahrick
- 15Who were Bahrick's participants?392 participants aged 17 to 74.
- 16What study did he do?They got yearbooks from participants. Recall was tested through photo recognition consisting of 50 photos some from the yearbook, free recall where participants recalled all the names of their class.
- 17What were Bahricks findings?Participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were 90% accurate in photo recognition. After 48 years recall declined to 70%. Free recall was worse than recognition. After 15 years this was 60% and dropped to 30% after 48 years. Showing how LTM can last a long time.
- 18What is a limitation of Baddeleys study?The lists of words were meaningless therefore can not be generalised.
- 19What is a limitation of Miller's study?Cowan found that capacity in STM was only 4 chunks.
- 20What is a limitation of Peterson and Peterson's research?Trying to remember consonant syllables does not reflect real life. Lacks external validity.
- 21What is the multi-store model?A representation of how memory works in terms of 3 stores. It describes how information is transferred from one store to another, how it is remembered and how it is forgotten.
- 22What are the 3 stores?Sensory register, short term memory and long term memory.
- 23Describe the MSM...The stimulus from the environment goes into the sensory register to either the iconic or echoic store through to the short term memory. Is that memory is rehearsed it goes into the long term memory where the information is maintained. To recall the information it needs to be retrieved from the LTM to STM.
- 24What is iconic memory?Visual information is coded visually.
- 25What is echoic memory?Sound or auditory information is coded acoustically.
- 26What is the capacity, duration and coding for STM?Capacity: between 5 and 9 items
Duration: 18-30 seconds
Coding: acoustically - 27WhT is the coding capacity and duration of LTM?Capacity: unlimited
Duration: years
Coding: semantic - 28What evidence is there to support the MSM?Baddeley found that we mix up words that sound similar in our STM and mix words with similar meanings in LTM. This clearly shows STM is acoustic and LTM is semantic and supports the fact that they are two independent stores.
- 29What is a limitation of MSM?The MSM is not a unitary store. Shallice and Warrington studied KF who's short term memory was poor when they read digits out loud but when was better when he read them himself. Showing there must be one STM store to process visual information and another for auditory information.
- 30What are the three types of LTM?Episodic, semantic and procedural.
- 31Who found the 3 types of long term memory?Tulving
- 32What is episodic memory?Our ability to recall events from our lives like a diary. They are time stamped, include several elements and you make a conscious effort to recall them.
- 33What is semantic memory?Our knowledge of the world like an encyclopaedia and a dictionary. Less personal and more about facts we share and is constantly being added to.
- 34What is procedural memory?This is our memory for actions or skills. We recall these memories without conscious effort.
- 35Clinical evidence of LTM...Clive wearing's episodic memory was impaired however his semantic memories were unaffected and procedural memory was still intact. This supports Tulving that there are different memory stores in LTM.
- 36There is also neuroimaging evidence...Brain scans show that the episodic and semantic memories are from different parts of the brain in an area called the prefrontal cortex whiffs is decided into 2.
- 37What is the working memory model?A representation of STM. It suggests that STM is a dynamic processed of different types of information using sub-units coordinated by a central decision making system.
- 38What are the 4 main parts of the WMM?Central executive, phonological loop, vision-spatial sketch pad and episodic buffer.
- 39What does the central executive do?This monitors the incoming data, makes decisions and allocates slave systems to tasks. It has a very limited processing capacity.
- 40What does the phonological loop do?It deals with auditory information and preserves the order the information arrives. It is split into 2: phonological store which stores words you hear, articulating process which allows maintainance rehearsal with a capacity of 2 seconds of what you can say.
- 41What does the Visio-spatial sketchpad do?The VSS stores visual and spatial information. It has limited capacity which is 3/4 objects (baddeley). Logie subdivided the VSS: visual cache which stores visual data and inner scribe which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
- 42What does the episodic buffer do?Is a temporary store for information, integrating the visual,spatial and verbal information and maintains a sense of time sequence. Has limited capacity of about 4 chunks.
- 43What research support does the WMM have?Shallice and Warrington's patient KF had poor STM ability for verbal information but could process visual information normally. Suggests the phonological loop had been damaged but other areas were intact.
- 44What does dual task performance suggest?Baddeley showed that participants had more difficulty doing two visual tasks than both visual and verbal at the same time. Both visual tasks compete for the same slave system, when doing verbal and visual simultaneously there is not competition meaning there must be separate slave systems.
- 45What is interference?Forgetting because one memory blocks another, causing one or both memories to be distorted or forgotten.
- 46What are the 2 types of interference?Proactive and retroactive.
- 47What is proactive interference?When an older memory interferes with a newer one.
- 48What is retroactive interference?When a newer memory interferes with an older one.
- 49What happens when the memories are similar?McGeoch and McDonald studied retroactive interference by changing the amount of similarity between 2 sets of materials. Participants had to learn a list of 10 words off by heart, then they learned a new list. There were 6 groups who had to learn different types of lists.
- 50What were the 6 groups?Group 1: synonyms
Group 2: antonyms
Group 3: words unrelated to originals
Group 4: nonsense syllables
Group 5: 3 digit numbers
Group 6: no new list - 51What were the findings?Their performance depended on the nature of their second list. The most similar material produced the worst recall (synonyms). Interference is strongest when the memories are similar.
- 52What is a limitation of McGeoch and McDonalds study?There is greater chance that interference will occur in a lab study than real life. Learning lists of words is not realistic and not like the things we try and learn everyday.
- 53What is retrieval failure?A form of forgetting. It occurs when we don't have the necessary cues to access memory. The memory is available but not accessible unless a suitable cue is provided.
- 54What is a cueA trigger of information that allows us to access a memory.
- 55What is encoding specificity principle?Tulving suggests if a cue helps us recall information it has to be present at encoding and at retrieval.
- 56What is context dependent forgetting?Godden and Baddeley conducted an experiment on deep sea divers. They learnt a list of words underwater or on land and were asked to recall either underwater or on land. Learn on land - recall on land, learn on land - recall underwater, learn underwater - recall on land and learn underwater - recall underwater.
- 57What were the findings of the underwater experiment?Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions. The external cues available at learning were different from the ones at recall and this led to retrieval failure.
- 58What research was done on state dependent forgetting?Carter and cassaday have anti histamine drugs to participants which made them slightly drowsy. They had to learn a list of words and recall the information. Learn on drug - recall when on it, learn on it - recall when not on it, learn not on drug - recall when on it and learn not on it - recall when not on it.
- 59What were the findings of Cassadays experiment?When cues are absent then there is more forgetting.
- 60What is supporting evidence for retrieval forgetting?Godden and Baddeley, Carter and Cassaday and Eysenck argue that retrieval failure is due to forgetting. This increases the validity.
- 61What is the argument against context dependent forgetting?Baddeley says contexts have o be very different to see an effect. This is a limitation as the real life applications of retrieval failure don't actually explain much forgetting.
- 62What are leading questions?A question which, because it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.
- 63What is post event discussion?When there are more than one witness to an event and they discuss what they have seen with each other or other people, this may influence the accuracy of each eye witness's recall of the event.
- 64Who did research into leading questions?Loftus and Palmer
- 65What study did they do?participants watched a video of a car accident gave them questions about it. 'about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?'. There were 5 groups with different verbs.
- 66What were the different verbs?hit, contacted, bumped, collided and smashed.
- 67What did Loftus and Palmer find?The verb contacted resulted in a mean of 31.8 mph. The verb smashed mean was 40.5 mph. Suggesting the leading question biased the eyewitness recall of an event.
- 68Why do leading questions affect EWT?Response- bias explanation suggests wording doesnt effect memory but how they answer.
- 69How does Loftus and Palmer's second experiment explain why leading questions affect EWT?This supported the substitution explanation. The wording does effect the memory, participants who heard smashed were more likely to say they saw broken glass than those who heard 'hit'.
- 70Who did research on post event discussion?Gabbert.
- 71What did she do?Studied participants in pairs. They watched the same crime but from different angles. They both then discussed what they had seen then individually completed a test of recall.
- 72What did Gabbert find?71% of participants mistakenly recalled things they did not see in their video but had picked up from discussion. The findings from the control group was 0%. This is possibly due to memory conformity.
- 73What is memory conformity?witnesses go along with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe others are right and they are wrong.
- 74What do leading questions and post event discussion fall under?Misleading information
- 75What is a strength of this research into misleading information?Has practical uses in the real world and shows the consequences of inaccurate EWT can be very serious.
- 76What did Loftus believe in terms of leading questions?Leading questions can have a distorting effect on memory. Police officers need to be careful about how they phrase questions when interviewing eyewitnesses.
- 77What is a limitation of the research into misleading information?The tasks are artificial as watching a video is not the same as witnessing a real accident. There is evidence that emotion can influence memory. Tells us little about real crimes and accidents.
- 78What can have an affect on eyewitness testimony?Anxiety
- 79Does anxiety has a positive or negative effect on recall?Either.
- 80Give an example of where anxiety has a negative effect on recall...Johnson and Scott's study with low anxiety and high anxiety conditions.
- 81What was Johnson and Scott's research?They led participants to believe they were in a lab experiment. In the waiting room the low anxiety group heard an argument then saw a man carrying a pen. The high anxiety group heard arguing and then breaking glass followed by a man holding a paper knife with blood on.
- 82What did Johnson and Scott find?Participants later picked out the man from 50 photos, 49% could identify the man carrying the pen however only 33% could identify the man carrying the knife. The tunnel theory suggests witnesses attention focuses on the weapon because its the source of anxiety.
- 83What is tunnel theory?An explanation for the weapon focus effect that the weapon narrows the field of attention thus reduces information to be stored.
- 84Give an example where anxiety has a positive affect on recall...Yuille and Cutshall, real life study of shootings in gun shop in Canada.
- 85What did Yuille and Cutshall study?Witnesses from the shooting were participants (13 out of 21). They are interviewed 5 months after and compared their accuracy, this was determined by the number or details given. They also had to rate how stressed they felt at the time using a 7 point scale.
- 86What did Yuille and Cutshall find?They were very accurate with their accounts after 5 months. Participants who reported the highest stress level were most accurate (88% compared to 75% in the less stressed group).
- 87What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?The inverted U theory states that performance will increase with stress, but only to a certain point, where it decreases drastically.
- 88Who applied the Yerkes- Dodson law to their experiment?Deffenbacher
- 89What did Pickel find about weapon focus?In an experiment in a hair salon they held either scissors, handgun, wallet or a raw chicken. Eyewitnesses accuracy was poorer in high unusual conditions. Weapon focus is due to unusualness rather than anxiety.
- 90What is the cognitive interview?A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories.
- 91What are the 4 main techniques of the cognitive interview?Report everything, reinstate the context, reverse the order and change perspective.
- 92Who created the cognitive interview?Fisher and Geiselman.
- 93What is the enhanced cognitive interview?A developed version of CI focusing on the social dynamics of interaction.
- 94Give three examples of what the interviewer needs to be careful of in ECI...Reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions and getting the witness to speak slowly.
- 95Who developed the CI to create the ECI?Fisher
- 96What is a limitation of CI?It's time consuming and takes longer than a standard police interview.
- 97Some elements are more valuable than others...Milne and Bull found that report everything and context reinstatement produced better recall than any of the others.
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- Flashcards on Psychology - memory, created by Meg Hudson on 21/06/2017.
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