COOPERATION AND IMPLICATION

COOPERATION AND IMPLICATION

1. Tautologies

   • If they are used in a conversation, clearly the speaker intend to communicate more than is said.
   • Implicature
     • Is when the speaker has no opinion, either good or bad, to express.
     • The Cooperative Principle
       • Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. The assumption of cooperation is so pervasive that it can be stated as a cooperative principle of conversation and elaborated in four sub-principles, called maxims. 
       • sub-principles
         • The maxims
           • Quantity
             • Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange). Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
           • Quality
             • Try to make your contribution one that is true. 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Hedges cautious notes.
           • Manner
             • Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be frief (avoid unnecessary proxility). Be orderly.
           • Relation
             • Be relevant.

2. Conversational Implicature

   • It is important to note that is speakers who communicate meaning via implicatures and it is listeners who recognize those communicated meanings via inference.

3. Generalized conversational implicatures

   • When no special knowledge is required in the context to calculate the additional conveyed implicature.

4. Scalar implicatures

   • This is one scalar implicature of uttering. The basis of scalar implicature is that, when any form in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated.

5. Particularized conversational implicatures

   • Most of the time, our conversations take place in very specific contexts in which locally recognized inferences are assumed. Such result from particularized conversational implicatures.
   • Properties of conversational implicatures
     • We have already noted that implicatures can be calculated by the listeners via inference. 

6. Conventional implicatures

   • Are not based on the cooperative principle or the maxims. They don't have to occur in conversation. Conventional implicatures are associated with specific words and result in additional conveyed meaning when those words are used.

7. What is a implicature?

   • An implicature is anything that is inferred from an utterance but that is not a condition for the truth of the utterance. It is meaning conveyed beyond the words.

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