8. Human relationships

8. Human relationships

1. 8.1 Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behaviour

   • Altruism
     • Definition
       • As the behaviour that benefits other organisms but some has costs
         • The cost and benefits are measurements in terms of reproductive fitness
           • Ex. expected number of offspring
     • Social psychology
       • Is a subcategory of helping behaviour
       • Refers to a behaviour that it is meant to benefit another person rather than it self
     • Staub (1978)
       • The acts may also result in a reward for the individual
         • Ex. Feeling good
     • Piliavin and Charng (1990)
       • Psychologist not agree on a single definition
     • Prosocial behaviour relation
       • Behaviour that behnefits others or has a positive social consequences
   • Prosocial behaviour
     • Definition
       • Refers to the acts intended to benefit others
         • Acts are positively valued in society
           • Hogg and Vaughan (1998)
           • Aggression and violence
             • Not valued by society therefore is called
               • " Anti-social behaviour "
     • Purpose
       • Of increasing another person's physical or psychological well being and have a positive income
         • EXAMPLE
           • Helping
           • Comforting
           • Sharing
     • Called
       • " Helping behaviour"
         • EXAMPLES
           • Donating money to refugees
           • Doing voluntary work

2. 8.2 Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans

   • Kin selection theory (evolutionary theory)
     • Kin selection theory (Hamilton, 1963)
       • Based in the idea that the individuals are more likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non-relatives
         • By sacrificing yourself for relatives you still attribute to the survival of your genes by helping close relatives
     • Dawkin´s (1989)
       • Suggest that what could look self-sacrifice could in reality promote ones genes
     • Trivers (1971)
       • Theory of reciprocal altruism
       • Suggest that by helping behaviour among non-kin have evolved as alternative system
       • Supplements the kin selection theory
       • Reciprocal altruism is based on the strategy that altruism acts are returned and pays off long term
   • Simmons (1977)
     • Kin and the likelihood of kidney donation
       • Investigated whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donors
       • Results showed that 86% of parents said yes but only 47% agree
         • Theory says that both should agree but cannot be explained in terms of kin alone
       • Then asked what was the emotional closeness to all possible donors
         • Generally they felt very close
   • Strengths of empathy altruism theory
     • Theory is supported by experimental studies
     • Predict conditions in which altruistic behaviour may happen
   • Limitations of empathy altruism theory
     • Difficult to generalize findings
     • Not able to determine whether altruism is a result of empathic motivation
     • Empathy not always related with altruistic behaviour
   • Contrast between two theories
     • Kin selection theory
       • Genes operate in a biological level with out human consciousness
       • Based on observation of animals because humans are more complex
       • Altruism is seen as behaviour that has cost to the individual
       • Theory is based on egoism
       • Can explain observation of people who behave more altruistically towards kin
       • Difficult to test
     • Empathy-altruism theory
       • Focus is human emotion empathy as primary motivating factor
       • Theory based on altruism as behaviour
       • Altruism humans the rule us out of the possibility of personality
       • Explain why people tend to behave altruistically in situations that evoke emphathy
       • Easy to test the theory under lab conditions

3. 8.3 Using one or more research studies, explain cross cultural differences in prosocial behaviour

   • Sociocultural factors in prosocial behaviuor
     • Cultural norms
     • Socialization practices in family
       • Influence how and when prosocial
         • Behaviour is exhibited
         • Children learn cultural norms and practices from important other through observation and though reinforment
     • Socioeconomic status factors
     • Cultural dimensions
       • Individualism
         • Influence the degree to which prosocial behaviour is encouraged children
       • Collectivism
     • Collectivist cultures
       • Helping family members
         • Familys subsistence
         • Cultures exhibit higher levels of prosocial tendencies
           • Individuals cultures that value personal success and competitiveness
             • Personal success
             • Competitiveness
             • Child rearing
               • Competitiveness
               • Personal achievements
             • Personal achivements
   • Whiting and whiting (1975)
     • Comparison of prosocial behaviour in six cultures as a result of child-rearing practices
       • Observation is between the ages 3 and 11 years in six different countries during their daily interactions
     • Result
       • Differences in the degree of prosocial behaviour in children among the studied cultures
       • Pro social children were formed from a more cultural society
       • The most egoist children came from the most complex modern society, the USA
       • Degree of modernization
         • Influence prosocial behaviour
           • Child rearing patterns
     • Diffence is how children participated in household chores and in care of younger
       • Prosocial are tend to live together in extended families
         • Female role is important (economy importance)
   • Miller et al. (1990)
     • Cultural norms and moral values influence the perception of social resposibility
       • Interviewed 400 individuals on a hypothetical situations
       • The situation involved parents obligation to help child, friends and peoples obligation to help stranger
       • The situations were life theating moderaly serious or minor threat