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Anatomy: Lectures I&II

Olivia Hatch English

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Definition: the study of the structure of a living organism's body

Physiology:
- Definition: the study of the functions of the structures within a living organism
- Homeostasis
  - Definition: the dynamic state of equilibrium that provides the framework for human physiology. It is the ability of the body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite the outside world changes, communication between the endocrine and nervous systems is essential for this to happen.
  - Homeostatic Control Components
    - The compensating mechanisms that mediate the activities of cells, tissues and organs so that any change within these structures starts a reaction to correct (or balance) the change.
    - Reflex Arc
      - Definition: the pathway mediating a reflex
      - Receptor
        Detects the environmental change
      - Control Center
        Receives signals from many receptors in the body responding to different types of stimuli. Also known as the integrating center. 
      - Effector
        Cell or cell collection whose change in activity leads to a response in a control system
    - Negative Feedback
      - Definition: System in which either an increase or decrease in the variable being regulated initiates a response that tends to bring the variable in the opposite (negative to) direction of the original change.
      - Negative Feedback Cycle
    - Positive Feedback
      - Definition: accelerates a process which leads to an explosive system" meaning there is no obvious means of stopping. Positive feedback is less common than negative feedback. Example: oxytocin release during childbirth
      - Positive Feedback Cycle
    - Afferent Nerves
      - Definition: to carry to, transmits information from the receptor to the control center
    - Efferent Nerves
      - Definition: to carry away, transmits information from the control center to the effector
    - Hormone
      - A type of chemical messenger secreted into the blood by cells of the endocrine system.
    - Cell Membrane
      - A protective barrier around a cell.
      - Permiability
        Definition: determines what moves in and out of a cell membrane, nutrients must get through the membrane, products and waste need to get out.
        Selective Permiability
        restricts materials based on size, electrical charge, molecular shape and lipid solubility
    - Transport
      - Diffusion and Osmosis
        Diffusion Definition: passive movement down a concentration gradient (requires a gradient of high to low concentration). Can be simple or channel-mediated which requires transmembrane proteins, or channel proteins.
        Osmosis definition: Diffusion of water across
        Osmotic Pressure
        Force of a concentration gradient of water, equals the force needed to block osmosis
        Example of Osmotic Pressure
        Tonicity
        The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell, two fluids may have equal osmolality but different tonicities
        Isotonic
        Have equal tonicity
        Hypotonic
        Lower tonicity than a standard cell
        Hypertonic
        Higher tonicity than a standard cell
      - Carrier Mediated Transport
        Facilitated Diffusion
        Passive, carrier mediated carrier proteins transport molecules that are too large to fit through a membrane.
        Facilitated Diffusion Example
        Active Transport
        Definition: requires energy (ATP) to go against the concentration gradient (low to high). 
        Specific pumps for the substance they are transporting. Common example would be the Na/K Pump that pumps 2 potassium ions into the cell and 3 sodium out of the cell. 
        Aerobic Metabolism
        Definition: the combustion of carbohydrates, amino acids, and fats to create energy. Requires oxygen!
        Aerobic Metabolism Cycle
        Anaerobic Metabolism
        Definition: the combustion of carbohydrates, amino acids and fats to create energy in the absence of oxygen. 
        Anaerobic Metabolism Cycle
        Krebs Cycle
        Definition: Oxygen dependent organisms use the Krebs Cycle to release stored energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.
        Krebs Cycle
      - Vesicular Transport
Microscopic Anatomy
- Cannot be studied with the naked eye
- Cytology
  - Study of cells
- Histology
  - Study of tissues
  - Epithelium
    - Characteristics:  Cellularity: will see many cells Polarity: apical (top) and basal (bottom). Cells attached at the basal membrane Avascular: no blood supply, depends on diffusion to get nutrients and rid waste Regeneration: capable of replacing damaged cells
    - Squamous
      - Looks like a flat pancake
      - Simple
        One layer of cells to aid with diffusion and absorption. Simple squamous cells can be found lining blood vessels as well as in the glomerulus of the kidney.
      - Stratified
        More than one layer of cells helps to protect against abrasive forces. Stratified squamous cells are found in the integumentary system (skin), the back of the throat, base of the anus and cornea.
    - Cuboidal
      - As tall as it is wide
      - Simple
        One layer of cells helps aid diffusion and absorption. These cells can be found in the ducts of the kidneys.
      - Stratified
        Mostly found in ducts (glands).
    - Columnar
      - Taller than it is wide
      - Simple
        Again, one layer of cells that aids in absorption and can be found in the small and large intestine and the stomach. These cells also have microvilli that increase the surface area to further increase absorption. They also produce enzymes important for digestion. 
      - Stratified
        Responsible for enzyme production in the salivary glands to produce salivary amylase and aqueous enzymes.
      - Pseudo-stratified
        These cells are found in the trachea and appear to be stratified but in fact all cells are attached to the basal membrane so technically they are just one layer. Their apical sides are cilliated to push particles up and our of the lungs and make the lungs one of the most sterile areas.
    - Transitional
      - Transitional epithelium is located in the urinary system (bladder and urethra) and have multiple layers of dome-shaped cells. As the bladder fills with urine the cells will slide and become more stretched out. This allows the bladder to fill without an increase in pressure. 
  - Connective
    - Characteristics: Connects the epithelium to the rest of the body. Provides structure for the body. Stores energy and transports material. 
    - Loose
      - Not much organization, packing material of the body.
      - Areolar
        Looks like someone threw spaghetti and meatballs against a wall. This is the least specialized connective tissue. It has an open, disorganized framework with collagen (large, thick fibers) and elastin (thin fibers) that provide stretch and movement. Viscous ground substance, almost slimy between skin and muscle and around the organs that feels almost like honey. 
      - Adipose
        Provides padding and cushions shock. Insulates and stores energy reserves.  Located underneath the skin, buttocks and holds the kidneys in place. Adipocytes are the fat calls that have a low metabolic rate and large vacuoles for storage. 
        White Fat
        Most common, stores lipids and is avascular.
        Brown Fat
        More vascularized and is metabolically active with alot of mitochondria which give it a brown color. Produces heat and is commonly found in athletes and people who exercise frequently.
      - Reticular
        Provides a supporting framework and structure for large organs (liver, spleen, kidney, lymph nodes and bone marrow). Reticular fibers help maintain shape.
    - Dense
      - Tightly packed with a large numbers of collagen or elastic fibers. 
      - Regular
        Aids in attachment and stabilization. Tightly packed parallel collagen fibers. This is the reason why your biceps can contact and pull 10% of their resting state length before snapping. However, forces that are not parallel to the fibers cause tears. Found in tendons (connect muscles to bone).
      - Irregular
        Flexible and have strength in many directions. Made up of interwoven networks of collagen fibers. Located in the periosteum, cartilage and dermis of the skin.
    - Elastic
      - Capable of stretching more than 10% of resting state. Located in the ligaments which connect muscle to muscle and in the spinal vertebrae.
    - Transport/Fluid
      - Blood
        Watery matrix of dissolved proteins made up of red blood cells (RBS), white blood cells (WBC) and platelets. Fibers get activated in the blood for help clotting when there is damage. 
      - Lymph
    - Supportive
      - Supports soft tissues and body weight.
      - Cartilage
        Flexible, gelatinous and avascular.
        Cartilage matrix contains proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates, ground substance proteins which are slippery, think and watery cells are surrounded by lacunae (hollow spaces). 
        Hyaline
        Made up of collagen fibers that are very fine and thin. Forms the end of bones in a joint, bone to bone contact. Looks like grapes in jello. 
        Fibrocartilage
        Made up of collagen and elastin fibers. Resistive to compressive forces due to body weight. Found in the intervertebral discs.
        Elastic
        Supports but can change shape, is fairly flexible. Made up of a mix of collagen and eslatic fibers and can be found in the ear and epiglottis of the throat. 
      - Bone
        Strong, rigid and vascular. Allows us to move and provides points of attachment for muscles. Made up of collagen and hydroxyapatite crystals (inorganic) and osteocytes (bone cells).
  - Muscle
    - Characteristics: Specialized for contraction (movement) and responsible for pushing food through the digestive tract, pushing urine out of the body, walking and breathing.
    - Classification is based off of the pattern of striation, number of nuclei and how the tissue is controlled (voluntary/involuntary, somatic/autonomic). 
    - Skeletal
      - Striated with sarcomeres and multiucleated. Helps with movement, mostly somatic voluntary control but the diaphragm and eye binks are under autonomic control.
    - Cardiac
      - Striated with sarcomeres, typically have 1-2 nuclei and is under autonomic, involuntary control. Found only in the heart. No vessels. Has unique branching to allow for contraction in multiple directions. Intercalated discs have two types of cell connections: 1. desmosomes that connect one cell to another and 2. gap junctions that allow ions to flow freely from one cell to the next to aid electrical stimulation.
    - Smooth
      - Not striated, long, think spindle shaped cells with one nucleus and are under autonomic, involuntary control. Found in the walls of hollow organs in the digestive, respiratory, urinary and reproductive systems. 
  - Neural
    - Characteristics: Conduction! Brings signals from the external environment to the central nervous system (CNS) for processing and sends signals back the the peripheral nervous system (PNS) to cause an action or effect. Responsible for our senses (sight, smell, taste, touch, sound, proprioception and nociception). Very complex and we are still learning new information! 
    - Neurons
      - Also called nerve cells. These cells are responsble for electrical communication.
    - Neuroglia
      - Support cells that are responsible for cell repair, nutrient supply and forms the blood-brain barrier. Acts as an immune system for the CNS (macrophages) and helps produce all of the myelin in the CNS and PNS.
Developmental Anatomy
- Definition: study of a living organisms bodily structures over time (from fertilization to adulthood)
Gross Anatomy
- Can be studied with the naked eye
- Regional
  - Focuses on a specific division in the body (i.e. the upper arm involves bones, arteries, veins, muscles and more)
- Systemic
  - Focuses on a specific system (i.e. the heart and it's blood vessels)
Surface Anatomy
- Definition: focuses on surfaces of the body and how hey relate to deeper structures
Organic Molecules
- All contain at least carbon and hydrogen. Many are soluble in water
- Carbohydrates
  - Comprised of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Easily used as a source of cellular food.
  - Monosaccharides
    - Simple sugar
  - Disaccharides
    - example: lactose
  - Polysaccharides
    - Contain starch and fiber which are not digestible. Examples are glycogen and cellulose.
- Lipids
  - Comprise the essential cellular components (phosphlipid bilayer), act as an insulator, energy storage, aid in shock absorption, are vitamins, chemical messengers and more!
  - Fatty Acids
    - Saturated
      - Single hydrogen bonds, solid at room temperature
    - Unsaturated
      - Hydrogen double bonds causes these substances to be liquid at room temperature
  - Eicosanoids
    - Prostaglandins and immune system messengers
  - Glycerides
    - No charge, neutral fats
  - Steroids
    - Hormones
      - Cholesterol based hormones ( estrogen, testosterone, progesterone. Responsible for cell signalling.
    - Bile Salts
  - Phospholipids and Glycolipids
    - Cell membrane!
- Proteins
  - Comprise 10-30% of the human body, most are macromolecules. The main functions of proteins are to provide structure and support, facilitate movement, aid in transport, responsible for buffering and metabolic regulation, aid in coordinator and control and responsible for the body's defenses.
  - Primary structure is a polypeptide of amino acids which then fold into alpha helixs and beta-pleated sheets that comprise the secondary structure. Tertiary structures are created when alpha helix fold on themselves and together. Quad structure comprises the final protein shape which is typically composed of multiple tertiary structures.
- Nucleic Acids
  - Chains of nucleotides form RNA and DNA. Cytosine,  guanine, adenine, thymine and uracil.
  - RNA
    - messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosoal RNA
  - DNA
    - found in the nucleus in the form of a double helix. Contains all the information to construct all the proteins in the body.
  - ADP/ATP
    - Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) that provide energy for the body that is stored in its bonds. Phosphorylation is when a phosphate group is added to ADP with a high energy bond to form ATP. Catalyzed by ATPase.

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Description: Mind Map on Anatomy: Lectures I&II, created by Olivia Hatch on 24/09/2017.
Created by: Olivia Hatch
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