Gender LEADERSHIP

Gender LEADERSHIP

1. Women employment patterns

   • Dale and Glover (1990) CHANGES ON SOCIAL NORMS which have framed what is ACCEPTABLE FOR WOMEN- LEGISLATIVE CHANGES HAVE CONTRIBUTED TOO (equal pay (though not yet achieved), maternity and paternity rights and shared parental leave
   • Pavetti and ACS (2001) UK SITUATUATION IS UNIQUE
   • Kay (1996) Women's employment is still affected by the presence and AGE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN, as women who have very young children have a much lower rate of employment, which is not the case for men
   • Women also DOMINATE PART TIME WORKFORCE because this offers much needed flexibility. Moreover, there is evidence of OCCUPATIONAL CLUSTERING and different organisational levels
   • ONS (2013) THERE IS A CLEAR DIVIDE men and women occupational clustering e.g. women = caring & men = technical

2. Policy issues

   • Evidence that the glass ceiling still remains (Eagly and Carli) as men still OCCUPY MORE SENIOR ROLES AND WOMEN ARE IN MORE JUNIOR ROLES - e.g. at Barclays, men earn on average 40% more than women - the bank says this is because a large proportion of women are IN JUNIOR ROLES
   • ONS (2017) find that women are underrepresented at ALL MANAGER LEVELS, however HR has an OVERREPRESENTATION OF WOMEN
   • Smith et al (2013) found that women had a lower likely reason to be a CEO, but they had a higher chance in particular areas (VICE, DEPUTY AND VICE PRESIDENT IN PARTICULAR AREA LIKE SALES)
   • As women tend to cluster in positions in HR, R&D ad IT, this explains the LOWER likelihood of promotion oF WOMEN TO CEO positions
     • THIS MATTERS BECAUSE: DAVIES report says that there is a POTENTIAL TALENT GAP in the pipeline and the boardroom is an important place to be because strategic decision making occurs there - it is the centre of CORPORATE GOVERNANCE - Davies argues that the LACK OF WOMEN ON BOARDS during the financial crash in 2008 potentially show the boardrooms previously took TOO MANY RISKS to lead to that point
   • Adams and Ferreira (2009) say companies with DIVERSE BOARDS ARE MORE LIKELY to be BETTER RUN, such as boards being likelier to challenge executives. Boards that are HOMOGENOUS could lead to GROUP THINK problem and senior managers will not be SCRUTINISED as they should be
     • Erhardt and Werbel (2003) Diverse boards are more LIKELY TO BE BETTER RUN as women are more likely to hold CEOs more ACCOUNTABLE by company performance
       • Erhardt and Werbel (2003) Women and minorities of directors may be MORE EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKERS - however there is LITTLE EVIDENCE to suggest diverse boards with women have HIGHER MARKET PERFORMANCE AND STOCK PERFORMANCE
   • Walsh (2012) finds women with strong aspirations for advancement to partnership ABSTAINED FROM SHOWING the need for a NEED FOR LIFESTYLE BALANCE - ALL FEMALE LAWYERS perceived that their opportunities for promotion were relatively constrained

3. Glass ceiling or labyrinth?

   • A labyrinth: in terms of gender gap is described as women facing a SERIES OF CHALLENGES and these challenges, as they mature in their careers, SEEM DIFFICULT TO GET OUT OF (Work life conflict)
   • Eagly and Carli (2007) find it is more APPROPRIATE to describe the gender gap in this way - winding path with DEAD ENDS and UNEXPECTED OBSTACLES, as some women have reached the highest positions in the world (Prime Ministers, Presidents and CEOs) so the GLASS CEILING is not an absolute barrier for all women
   • Cheung and Halpern (2010) Women can reach the top roles in organisations, but they MAY TAKE LONGER to do so
   • Turner and Bowen (1999) it is a MATTER OF CHOICE as to why women make decisions to be where they are and IT IS NOT ABOUT BARRIERS - this can be seen in the men and women choosing university courses - the choices women make is important because women are RESPONDING TO POTENTIAL anticipated work/life balance of the company culture and thinking about their LONG TERM CAREERS (Ng and Burke, 2008)
     • Research shows women view promotions equally attainable as men, but it was views as LESS DESIRABLE because women had A DIFFERENT SET OF GOALS THAN MEN such as being in a committed relationship, keeping fit and having a family, indicating FEWER GOALS ACHIEVING POWER IN MANY ORGANISATIONS
       • Hoobler et al (2014) argues that both male and female managers perceive female subordinates AS LOWER IN CAREER MOTIVATION, whilst managers make a very crucial evaluation about career motivation - People found to be LOWER CAREER MOTIVATED GOT FEWER CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING OPPORTUNITIES
         • Glass (2004) says WOMEN CAN BE OVERLOOKED for opportunities - barriers preventing this can range from PREJUDICE TO CAREER PENALTIES for work life policy use - women use it more than men
           • Konrad and Yang (2012) argue that USING WORK LIFE POLICIES can be felt in the beginning BUT the effect on promotion MAY DISAPPEAR OVER TIME
         • Walsh (2012) Women with the STRONGEST PARTNERSHIP ASPIRATIONS, not just women with weak aspirations, were also keen to highlight the difficulties of achieving balance and flexibility, SO MUCH SO THAT SOME WOMEN WERE DISCOURAGED FROM STAYING IN THEIR LAW FIRMS
   • Hakim (2008) NOT ALL WOMEN WISH TO ADVANCE TO HIGHER LEVELS - THOSE WHO DO MAY REMAIN CHILDLESS - not interested in work family/life policies

4. Gender bias

   • The theory of 'DOUBLE STANDARD' is where someone has to work TWICE AS HARD to EARN REWARDS, than someone who is of higher status
   • Lyness and Heilman (2006) found that PROMOTED FEMALE managers had HIGHER PERFORMANCE ratings than PROMOTED MALE managers
     • The lack of fit between male gendered type jobs and female stereotypes - Ridgeway (2011) SENIOR ROLES HAVE BEEN GENDER TYPED MALE - as men are seen as MORE AGENTIC and women are seen to be more RELATIONSHIP ORIENTATED
   • MOST PRONOUNCED when women are in MINORITY WORKGROUPS and are in MALE STEREOTYPED POSITIONS
     • Yonder (1994) TOKENISM - appears when women are 20% lower in a work group. Women tend to receive POORER WORK EVALUATIONS - this DOES NOT HAPPEN TO MEN if the are less than 20% of the workgroup
   • Gorman (2006) finds firms with LARGER NUMBERS OF PARTNERS are characterised by a higher proportion of FEMALE PARTNERS - GENDER BIAS IS LESS OVERT when the PARTNERSHIP is more INTEGRATED BY GENDER

5. 24/7 working and work-life interface

   • Women TAKE A LONGER TIME to REACH HIGHER LEVEL CAREER ROLES, which effects their pay
     • Gordon and Whelan-Berry (2007) family work life bias - male and female managers tend to view FEMALE EMPLOYEES as EXPERIENCING MORE FAMILY WORK CONFLICT than men, EVEN IF THEY DON'T - this interferes with WORK PERFORMANCE, which has an effect of PROMOTION
   • Ibarra (2010) High potential women are OVER MENTORED and UNDER-SPONSORED - the mentoring in INEFFECTIVE so there is less opportunities for promotion. E.g. Unilever, Deutshe Bank and IBM Europe have sponsership programmes to promote high potential women - influential people in the organisations will sponsir advancement and will argue in promotion committees on behalf of the employee
   • O'Malley (2018) 'Returnship' programmes, which aid women who have left the workforce - beneficial way of reducing the effects of work-life interface

6. Non-western perspective (China)

   • Women in China are INVESTING in their education, but there is a SHORTAGE OF TALENT in China (one child policy effects) Families also want their children to be in HIGH PAID ROLES - MNCs attract qualified women whilst state owned enterprises are male dominated
   • GUANXI relationships - Vanhonaker (2004) building relationships with people and your own network. This is a NETWORK OF INFLUENCE
   • Looke and Xiao (2014) found that in the West, there were more men than women but Asian women did not overly object to their treatment because there were LESS LIKELY TO PERCEIVE DISCRIMINATION that Western women
   • Cranfield University (2017) Looked into female directors, executives and non executive directors in the UK FTSE 100. They found theBGGEST INCREASE WAS NON EXECUTIVE DIRECTORS, however there were still very few women in Boards Directors and Executive Directors, who often came FROM OUTSIDE THE ORGANISATION AND WERE NOT RECRUITED FROM WITHIN

7. Men

   • Men OUTNUMBERED by women in universities (except South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa)
   • Economist (2015) the economy has become more AMENABLE to WOMEN THAN TO MEN. There has been a big DISPLACEMENT OF MEN (especially working class) which is having an effect of the political picture (Donald Trump and Brexit)
   • Williams (1992) Men entering 'female gendered type' roles INCREASING especially among young, white, university educated men - they tend to RISE TO SUPERVISORY POSITIONS QUICKER THAN WOMEN - A HIDDEN ADVANTAGE
     • Wingfield (2009) the new gender gap is also at the other end of the spectrum, where UNSKILLED MEN are suffering the most