Relative, Concessive Clauses and Linking words.

Relative, Concessive Clauses and Linking words.

1. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

   • Is a subordinate clause that introduces an unexpected idea or suggests some contrast with the information expressed in the main clause.
   • The main connectors that opem this type of sentences are:
     • Although, though, even though, even if, in spite of, despite, while and whereas:
       • Both of them express a contrast without denying the information in the main clause:
         • He eats eggs and milk although/though he is a vegetarian.
         • Though is more usual in speaking and can appear at the end of the sentence, preceded in that case by a comma:
           • He is vegetarian. He eats eggs and milk, though.
       • If the subordinate clause comes first, it is then separated by a comma:
         • Although he is vegetarian, he eats eggs and milk.
       • Even though/even if
         • These 2 linkers add emphasis the contrast already expressed.
           • The difference between that when using even though the speaker is sure about the information but not so with even if. Both are followed by a sentence.
             • She was still upset about the delay even though he apologized (sure).
             • She would still be upset even if he had apologized (not sure).
       • In spite of/despite
         • Both linkers are used to express the idea of something unexpected that is happening.
         • They can be followed by three different possible structures -ing, a noun or a sentence introduced by the fact that, as in
           • In spite of/despite having so much work, he attended his friends meeting.
           • In spite of/despite the traffic, he managed to arrive on time.
           • In spite of/despite the fact that they were tired, they worked really well.
             • Although they were tired, they worked really well.
       • While/whereas
         • They are used when 2 ideas are being compared and contrasted within a sentence to speak about their differences, but without contradicting each other.
         • They are followed by a sentence:
           • I said that i preffered travelling to ansterdam while/whereas he wanted to visit paris.
           • While/whereas he choose chocolate cake or dessert, I choose créme caramel.
         • Sometimes it is possible to reduce the concessive clause by leaving out the main verb.
           • Although very tired, we watched the whole of the play.
         • You should only do this when the concessive clause refers to the subject of the main clause. So, for example, you would not say.
           • Although very boring, we watched the whole of play.
         • Remember that despite and in spite of cannot be followed by a main verb. You cannot say.
           • Despite he was late, John had another cup of coffee. Both can be followed by a gerund or a noun.
   • COMPLEX SENTENCES
     • It is possible to draw attention to information by ´fronting it in a sentence.
     • Fronting often improves the cohesion and naturalness of a piece of writting.
     • So, for example, a reason clause, which explains information in the main clause, can present information in a logical way by coming first:
       • As the organisers had paid attention to detail, the festival was a great success.
         • Since i had bought an extra ticket for the concert, I invited Mike to go with me.
     • Conjuctions commonly used in reason clauses are: as, because, since.

2. RELATIVE CLAUSES

   • We use relative clauses in order to express additional information about something.
     • RELATIVE ADVERBS: Why When Where
   • By using them, we make our text more fluent and we avoid repeating some words in the same sentence.
   • In order to make relative clauses, we need to use relative pronouns, which will be used to avoid repetition.
     • Who, Whoose, That, Whom, Which and which
   • In order to make a difference between subject and object pronouns, we have:
     • Defining Relative Clauses
       • In english, defining relative clauses. We do not use commas:
         • Do you know the boy who is looking at you?
       • This kind of clauses is mainly used for giving directions:
         • A hairdresser is someone who cuts people´s hair.
       • Objects pronouns in defining relative clauses can be omitted:
         • The new student (who) i met yesterday is very kind
     • Non-Defining Relative Clauses
       • We use non-defining clauses in order to give or express additional information which is not relevant for the sentence.
       • Non-defining relative clauses are put between commas.
         • Madrid which is the capital of spain, is a very beautiful city.
       • In non-defining relative clauses object pronouns must be used:
         • Peter who broke his leg yesterday, is one of my favorite friends.

3. LINKING WORDS

   • Words and phrases meaning 'and', 'but' and 'so'
     • 'And': Too/as well. Also, In addition, Besides and furthermore.
     • 'But': Still, however, Nvertheless/all the same, On the other hand.
     • 'So': therefore, Consequently/as a result.
   • Other linking words and phrases
     • Rephrasing: In other words.
     • Correcting yourself: I mean/Or rather.
     • Contradicting: On the contrary.
     • Picking up a topic: Talking of.
     • Changing the subject: By the way.
     • Supporting a statement: After all.
     • Dismissing something: Anyway.
     • Giving an example: for example/for instance.
   • If, unless and in case
     • We use these words to express a condition.
   • Reason: Because, Since, Because of, due to, Owing to, In view of.
   • Because and so: We use because to express the reason for something ans so to express the result of something
   • To, in order to and so that: We use these words to express purpose.