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Psych Exam 2

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Mind map: Psych exam 2

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Psych Exam 2

Learning: any relevant permanent change that occurs because of experience
- Conditioning: a kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and responses
  - Classical Conditioning: the organism learns to associate two stimuli , where one produces a response which originally was only produced by the other (THINK PAVLOV)
    - Unconditioned stimulus: elicits the unconditioned response (food)
    - Unconditioned response: response which is automatically produced (salivating)
    - Conditioned Stimulus: originally neutral stimulus that elicits a behavior after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (bell)
    - Conditioned Response: response elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (salivating to bell)
    - Acquisition: phase of classical conditioning when the CS and US are paired together. (food with bell)
    - Extinction: repeat the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus over time and the conditioned response stops
    - Spontaneous recovery: after a response has been extinguished it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time with exposure to the conditioned stimulus
    - Second Order (Higher Order) Conditioning: pairing a neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus will create another conditioned stimulus, although a weaker conditioned response. More likely to show extinction (food with bell, bell with light)
    - Stimulus Generalization: after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other, similar stimuli may produce the same reaction
    - stimulus discrimination: one learns to realize the differences between similar stimuli
    - Garcia's Research
      - may be differential reactions to classical conditioning by sense
      - taste aversions particularly sensitive to learning
      - May be evolutionarily determined
  - biological preparedness: a propensity for learning particular associations over others
  - Operant conditioning/instrumental learning: Behavior is dependent on its consequences
  - Thorndike: studied cats to understand learning behaviors
  - Law of Effect: a satisfying result strengthens/increases a behavior
  - B.F. Skinner
    - all behavior is explained by looking outside the individual
    - People (and animals) tend to repeat behaviors which have positive consequences; decrease behaviors which have negative consequences
  - Consequences
    - Neutral consequence: not more or less likely to see behavior patterns change
    - Reinforcement: anything which will make a response more likely to occur
      - Primary Reinforcers: satisfy biological needs (food, water, sex, etc)
      - Secondary Reinforcers: satisfy through association with primary reinforcers (money, praise, grades)
      - Presentation increases likelihood of repeating behavior
      - More effective than punishment as it increases the behavior wanted
    - Punishment: anything which will make a response less likely to occur
      - presentation or removal of a stimulus decreases the likelihood of a response
      - Positive punishment: something occurs (a stimulus presented) to decrease a behavior (spanking)
      - Negative punishment: something is removed to decrease a behavior (no TV, no dessert)
    - Reinforcement or Punishment which occurs immediately after a behavior has the strongest effect.
  - Learning Schedules
    - Continuous: reward/punishment occurs each time the behavior occurs
    - Intermittent/Partial: reward/punishment occurs when a response occurs only some of the time
    - Ratio Schedules: deliver reinforcement after a certain number of responses have occurred
      - Fixed Ratio Schedules: reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (every 4x)
      - Variable ratio schedules: reinforcement after some average number of responses (on avg. 7x)
    - Interval Schedules: reinforcement after a certain amount of time has passed and the desired behavior has occurred
      - Fixed interval: reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed since the past reinforcer (5 min.)
      - Variable interval: reinforcement occurs if a variable amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer
    - For a response to persist, it should be reinforced intermittently making the response more difficult to extinguish.
  - Shaping: reinforcing behavioral tendencies in a desired direction. Uses successive approximation - reinforcing responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
- Social Cognitive Theories of Learning
  - Observational Learning: belief there is a higher level cognitive process to how we learn; impacts attitudes, beliefs and expectations
    - Bandura's 4 Key Components
      - Attention: be aware of another's behavior and consequences
      - Retention: have the capacity to store/retrieve what you have observed
      - Reproduction: behaviorally imitate what has been stored in memory
      - Motivation: determined by a belief that the behavior will bring about a desired response
    - Lassie Study
      - observational learning can have prosocial benefits
      - Children who were exposed to media that demonstrated altruistic behavior towards animals were more likely to show empathy to animals in distress
Memory: the capacity to retain and retrieve information
- How to measure memory
  - Recall: ability to retrieve info which has been learned earlier.
  - Recognition: ability to identify previously encountered info.
  - Relearning: effort is saved in having learned something before.
- Models of Memory
  - Info Processing Model: memory and mind are like a computer
    - Encoding: how to put info in, retain, store, and retrieve.
      - Levels of Processing: levels impact encoding
        Shallow Processing:
        Structural Encoding: emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
        Ex: Is the word written in capital letters?
        Intermediate Processing
        Phonemic Coding: emphasizes what a word sounds like.
        Ex: Does the word rhyme with weight?
        Deep Processing
        Semantic Encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.
        Ex: Would the word fit into the sentence, "He met a ___ on the street?"
  - Three Box Model
    - Sensory Memory
      - Retains for 1-2 seconds
      - Acts as holding bin (waiting room)
      - ~ ½ second in visual subsystem
        iconic memory: fast-decaying store of visual info
      - ~ longer in auditory system
        Echoic memory: fast-decaying store of auditory info
      - Decides if it is worth processing
    - Short Term Memory
      - holds limited amounts of info for up to 20/30 seconds
        Research indicates it is a “ working memory"
      - Pattern Recognition: compares info already in our long term, goes to long term, decays, or is lost
      - Magic Number: number of items we are able to hold in our short term memory
      - Chunking: grouping connected items so that they can be stored or processed as single concepts
        increases memory
    - Long Term Memory
      - Longer storage for minutes to decades
      - organized by schemas and semantic networks
      - Explicit memory: the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
        Semantic memory: facts and general knowlecdge
        Episodic Memory: Personally experienced events.
      - Implicit Memory: Past experience influencing later behavior and performance.
        Procedural Memory: Motor and Cognitive Skills
        Priming: Advanced identification of objects or words.
- Serial Position Effect: More likely to remember first and last items in a series.
  - Recency Effect: Tendency to remember words at end of a list.
  - Primary Effect: Tendency to remember words at beginning of a list.
- Frequency: Tendency to remember repetitive terms.
- Distinctiveness: Tendency to remember distinct terms/.
- Reconstructed memory needs to be assessed, and reflects how schemas can affect memory
- Ways to Remember
  - Chunking
  - Maintenance Rehearsal: retain in short term, repeat.
  - Elaborative Rehearsal: know it, review it, practice, give meanings
  - Visual Imagery: create visual images to represent words/concepts to remember
  - Method of Loci: match up existing visual images with concepts
  - Mnemonics: systematic strategies for remembering info. Memory tricks or useful tools (ie ROY G Biv)
- Dual Code Theory: memory is enhanced by using both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall.
- Chase and Simon research
  - chess players
  - Expert knowledge helps with relevant but not irrelevant info
  - expert, intermediate, and novice
- Flashbulb memories: dramatic positive or negative memory.
  - memories of traumatic events
    - more vivid than ordinary events
    - main aspects remembered
  - can distort details
  - can fade over time
- Eyewitness Testimony
  - memories are highly suggestible
    - errors more frequent when ethnicity of subjects is different than witness
  - people tend to fill in missing info
  - wording impacts memory
  - more recent study with digitally enhanced photos and memory reconstruction
- Reality monitoring: deciding wether memories are based on external or internal sources
- source memory (monitoring): recall of when, where, and how info was acquired
- Memory misattribution (source monitoring error): assigning a memory to the wrong source
- Forgetting
  - how "quickly" we forget
  - Ebbinghuas' forgetting curve for nonsensical syllables are steep but not generalizable to all forgetting
  - ineffective encoding: we don't "remember" it in the first place
  - decay theories: memories fade with time
  - new memories for old: new version is "saved"
  - Retroactive Interference: new info interferes with old
  - Proactive Interference: old info interferes with new
  - Motivated Forgetting: painful memories blocked from consciousness
  - Amnesia: refers to memory deficits
    - Retrograde Amnesia: deficit in recalling events that happened before the onset of amnesia
    - Anterograde Amnesia: Deficit in learning after the onset of amnesia
- Retrieval Cues: external info helps memory (music)
- Encoding Specificity: a cue can help as a reminder when it recreates the specific way the info/memory was encoded
  - State dependent and context dependent: mental and physical states can enhance memory
    - memories made when drinking come back when drinking
    - being in similar environment or setting can be like going back to scene of the crime, bringing back memories
Emotion and Motivation
- Emotion: behavioral, physiological, and cognitive driven components
  - Cognitive: Subjective conscious experience, includes an "appraisal" or evaluation of the situation
  - Physiological
    - bodily arousal accompanies feeling states
    - fight or flight
    - assess with GSR/Polygraph
      - Polgraph: record autonomic fluctuations (when subjects lie, noticeable changes in physiological indicators). Not always accurate.
  - Behavioral: characteristic overt expression of emotion
    - Body language and facial expressions
    - Six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear, surprise (current research on contempt)
    - Facial Feedback Hypothesis: belief that facial expressions themselves can control emotions.
    - Display Rules: norms that regulate the appropriate motions; culturally determined
  - Theories of Emotion
    - James-Lange Theory: conscious experience of emotion results from perception of arousal; "I'm scared because I am running".
    - Cannon-Bard Theory: cognitive interpretations of a situation and response occur at approximately the same time; "I am running away and feeling scared"
    - Schacter's Two-Factor Theory: People use two factors to identify emotion; physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation; search the environment for an explanation for reactions; look for external cues to help label emotions
- Motivation: vigor and persistence of goal directed behavior, helps move us towards our goals
  - Evolutionary Theory: motivation plays a significant role in adaptation; social need to affiliate, share resources, provide protection, procreation
  - Drives: internal state of tension that propels one to a certain activity/behavior to lessen the feeling
  - Incentives: external goals that promote a behavior
  - Intrinsic Motivation: a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
  - Extrinsic Motivation: a motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding but that lead to reward
  - Delay of Gratification: the ability to engage in behaviors that are currently unrewarding for greater rewards
    - Associated with better grades (more predictive than IQ), social competence, emotional intelligence, achievement motivation, higher SAT
  - Biological Needs/Motivation
    - Homeostasis: tendency for the body (person) to want to maintain a state of constancy
    - Hunger/Food: Energy is necessary for maintenance and growth. Search for a balanced diet
    - Hypothalamus: primary structure of the brain which signals hunger and satiation (fullness)
      - Lateral (near side) turns hunger "on". stimulation yields increased eating. a lesion or damage can cause starvation
      - ventromedial (lower, middle) is the hunger "off". Stimulation stops eating. Lesion or damage can cause overeating.
  - Various Factors Which Impact Eating Behaviors
    - Biological Factors
      - Genetics influence metabolism
      - Bodily sensations: growl, distension
      - Chemical signals to the body (ghrelin-stimulates hunger)
      - Leptin: hormone that helps regulate hunger
      - Leptin Resistance: some people do not response to "hunger off" signal
      - genetic mapping of "obesity genes"
    - Social Factors
      - Environmental influences on eating behaviors
      - Complex and multiply determined
      - Eat more in groups
      - expectation and memory of meals
      - palatability
      - social interactions
    - Psychological Factors
      - thinking about food and what it "means"
      - learned food habits/preferences
      - memories associated with food
      - beliefs and feelings regarding body image
      - cultural variations
      - Food as substitute for love/sex
    - Health Concerns of Obesity Overweight
      - coronary heart disease
      - type 2 diabetes
      - cancers
      - hypertension
      - stroke
      - sleep apnea
    - Reasons We Overeat
      - overeating can result from biochemical abnormalities (leptin resistance)
      - we eat when we are not hungry
      - nature designed us to overeat
    - Additional Factors of Obesity Rates
      - quantity availability
        increased high fat easily accessible junk food
      - Increased portion size
      - increased sedentary lifestyle
      - external cues
    - Difficulty Losing Weight
      - Over eating leads to increase in the number and size of fat cells. When we lose weight we we experience a decrease in the size of fat cells, but not the number of fat cells
      - Dieting affects our metabolism; the rate at which energy is used. Our body adapts to less calories by trying to maximize the ways to turn food we do consume into fat
    - Metabolism: the rate at which energy is used
    - Set point: a natural point of stability in body weight
    - Eating Disorders
      - Anorexia: intense fear of being overweight and a severe restriction of food intake
      - Bulimia: binge eating followed by compensatory behavior
      - Binge Eating Disorder (BED): recurrent and uncontrolled episodes of eating a large number of calories over a short time
  - Sexuality
    - Kinsey Survey
      - Identified sexual behaviors/preferences
      - Self-Report Data—bias issues
      - limited validity
      - important beginning
    - Masters and Johnson
      - Need to understand actual sexual responses
      - Need direct systematic observation/measures
      - Subjects: originally used prostitutes (question generalizability...non-normative sample)
      - Recruited from the general public
      - Age Range: 18-60ish
      - took physiological measurements
      - created various "instruments" for this study
      - resulted in important findings
    - Sexual Response Cycle: Predictable Cycle for Men and Women
      - 1. Excitement
        2. Plateau
      - 3. Orgasm
      - 4 Resolution
      - Primary Findings and Phallic Fallacies
        males experience a refractory period
        Prevalence rates of orgasm may vary for men and women - women may experience multiple orgasms although reports are that they reach orgasm less consistently than men
        concerns regarding size: Does it matter?
        flaccid penis size is not a direct proportion to the penis erect
        men express belief they are smaller than average
        Research indicates that in terms of sexual satisfaction for self and partner: size does not matter
    - Gender Differences
      - Males think about sex more and willing to engage in sexual activity with more casual partners
      - Males place more emphasis on youth and attractiveness
      - Females place more emphasis on intelligence and ability to provide and protect
      - Biological vs Environmental influences on sexuality
      - Many of these beliefs are currently being challenged by contemporary research
    - Sexual Orientation and the role of Biology and the Environment
      - Research continues to support the role of biology in aspects of sexual orientation
      - Appears to be more variations/plasticity for women in terms of sexual orientation
      - Homosexuality not considered a mental disorder since 1973
  - Need for Affiliation
    - need to be connected/related to others
    - Need for affiliation varies by individual
    - Increased need to affiliate in fear situations
    - Hill's 4 Functions We Strive to Affiliate
      - 1. To obtain positive affiliation in our lives
      - 2. To receive emotional stimulation in our lives
      - 3. To gain attention
      - 4. To permit social comparison
  - Achievement Motivation: What drives us to seek and reach goals; basic human motive to achieve.
    - Approach Motivation (Motivation to Success): thrill at mastery, sense of achievement
    - Avoidance Motivation (Motivation by fear of failure): fear of performing badly, increases anxiety, tends to be a little stronger but see individual differences
    - Yerkes/Dodson: optimal levels of anxiety/performance
    - Ways to Assess
      - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Murray but used by McClelland
        Projective Test that looks at themes of achievement
        People high in achievement tend to work harder and more persistently, more future oriented, able to delay gratification for long term goals
Language and Thought
- Language: system of symbols that convey meaning/rules of combination that allow for communication
  - Linguistic Relativity (Benjamin Whorf): one's language determines one's thoughts (data supported)
  - Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky): humans possess an inborn language mechanism hard-wired to sort input from 20-80 phonemes (lose by 12 months)
  - Structure of Language
    - Phonemes: smallest units of sounds which can be distinguished; change in sound can alter meaning
      - Middle Phonemes: b"i"t or b"a"t
      - Initial Phonemes: "c"at or "b"at
    - Morphemes: The smallest units of meaning in a language. ("cat" or "bat" "un-friend-ly")
  - Semantics: understanding the meaning of words and word combinations
  - Syntax: the structure of a language, underlying rules of order/function for how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences
  - Gleason Study: language rules are generative
  - Overregularizations: grammatical rules incorrectly generalized to “exception” cases (He "goed" to the park; He "bringed" the cake to the party)
  - Fast-mapping: children may add words to their vocabularies after one exposure
  - Overextensions: one word is over applied to a broader range of objects or actions. (all animals are "doggie")
  - Underextensions: one word is incorrectly believed to apply to only one member of a group or classification. ("sissy" is the only sister that exists)
  - expressive (productive) language: the ability to produce language
  - receptive language: the ability to comprehend, process, and integrate the meaning of language (children usually have greater capacity)
  - Stages of Language Development
    - crying
    - Cooing: vowel-like sounds
    - babbling: consonant/vowel
    - first words
    - holophrases: simple words conveying meaning
    - telegraphic speech: "content" word sentences
    - grammatical language
    - by age 6 learn avg. of 15 words per fay, vocab of 8,000-14,000 words
      - around this age children acquire metalinguistic awareness: the capacity to assess the different uses of language (ex: homonyms; read/red)
  - Nonverbal communication
    - vocal intonation: stress, pitch, volume
    - body language (crossed arms, siting up, etc.)
    - gestures
    - physical distance
    - facial expressions
    - touch
  - Theories of Language
    - Learning Theory and Language: Language is based on modeling, imitation, exposure and reinforcement (behaviorist theory)
      - Flaws
        children acquire language with ease, not broad variations
        adult speech is often sloppy; children acquire basic rules/structures anyways
        children's speech is not a mechanical play back of adult speech
    - nativist theory: humans are neurologically prewired to learn language
    - Interactionist theory: both biology and experience make important contributions to language development
  - Bilngualism
    - Some question whether learning a second language interferes with acquisition, but we often see similar cumulative vocabulary
    - See the ethical challenges of dual roles in research with human subjects
    - Can apply course concepts regarding learning, memory, and the different theories of language acquisition
    - As case study: generalizable?
  - Animal Research
    - speech production limited
    - challenges designing tests to assess comprehension
    - capacity for understanding others/empathy/altruism
    - learning vs imitation
    - ability to form concepts and categories is investigated
    - began with using ASL
- Thought: an extension of perception and memory. Mental representations are formed, recalled and manipulated
  - Concepts; a mental representation of a category; we often recognize an object as a member of a particular group
  - Resemblance Theory: identifying members of a category based on characteristic features--but this attribute may not be shared by all
  - Exemplar Theory: we categorize by comparing the image to other instances stored in our memory of members within the category and make a judgment about inclusion. (Compare to ALL category members)
  - we categorize by looking at a "prototype" and comparing the object to this main representation of the group
  - Rosch: - concepts are defined by a prototype or the most typical member of a "class" - is a sparrow a bird? - is a penguin a bird? - is a bat a bird?
  - problems vary from well defined to ill defined
  - framing: how a problem is posed may change the decision making tasks and the solutions
  - prospect theory/loss aversion: avoiding losses is more important than achieving comparable gains
  - algorithm: a well-defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarantees a solution to a problem
  - hyptohesis tesing: make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution
  - mental simulation: mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem
  - mental set: tendency to stick to solutions which have worked in the past
  - functional fixedness: our tendency to rely on a function for an object and ignore other possible uses
  - classic problem solving task is string and weights
  - Direct application of overcoming functional fixedness : creative/novel ways to use objects
  - confirmation bias: we seek to confirm what we already believe
  - distraction by irrelevant info
  - unnecessary constraints: we put restrictions on our problem solving which don't exist
  - insight: - the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error
  - decision making: evaluating alternatives and making choices among them
Intelligence

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Description: Mind Map on Psych Exam 2, created by C DS on 11/03/2020.
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