C1

1. Atom
   1. The smallest part of an element that can still be recognised as the element

1. Shells
   1. Electron
      1. -
         1. Equal number
2. Nucleus
   1. Proton
      1. +
         1. Equal number
   2. Neutron
      1. 0

Annotations:

• Section of the periodic table - image from google search - GCSE periodic table

Annotations:

• GCSE AQA Chemistry textbook image

Annotations:

• GCSE AQA Chemistry Textbook image

1. To make lots of CaO it is done in a
   1. Lime kiln
      1. Put crushed limestone in
      2. Heat strongly with hot air
      3. Waste products (CO₂) leave out the top
2. Rotary kiln
   1. Heated in a rotating drum
   2. Helps to decompose quickly
   3. Limestone throughly mixed with hot air

1. Can be quarried and used as building materials
2. Decomposed by heating
   1. Thermal decomposition
   2. Make:
      1. Calcium oxide
         1. Reacts with water
            1. Calcium hydroxide
               1. Alkali
                  1. Used to neutralise acids
      2. Carbon dioxide
         1. Limewater
            1. Cloudy
            2. CaOH in water reacts with CO₂
         2. Carbonates react with acids to produce
            1. CO₂
            2. Salt
            3. H₂O
3. Limestone is damaged by:
   1. Acid rain

1. Heated with clay to make
   1. Cement
      1. Mixed with sand to make
         1. Mortar
      2. Mixed with sand and aggregate to make
         1. Concrete

1. Contains enough metal to make it economical to extract the metal
2. Mined and may be concentrated before the metal is extracted and purified

1. But most as found as compounds that require chemical reactions to extract the metal

1. Metals less reactive than C can be extracted from their oxides by reduction
2. Metals more reactive than C can be extracted by copper-rich ores by smelting
   1. Copper can be purified by electrolysis
      1. Supply is limited

1. Traditional mining impacts
2. Phytomining
   1. Uses plants to absorb metal compounds and the plants are burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds
3. Bioleaching
   1. Uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds
4. Copper can be obtained from solutions of copper salts by electrolysis or displacement using scrap iron

1. Too expensive because
   1. Too many stages in the process
   2. Large amount of energy needed
2. Titainium
   1. Denser than Al
   2. Don't corrode
   3. Light
   4. Strong
   5. High melting point
   6. C reacts making it brittle
3. Aluminium
   1. Don't corrode
   2. Good heat conductor
   3. Light
   4. Strong
   5. Malleuble
   6. Shiny
   7. Silvery

1. Annotations:

   • Google searched image - Blast Furnace
2. Iron from the blast furnace contains about 96% iron
   1. Impurities make it brittle so it has limited uses
3. Steels are alloys
4. Low-carbon steels are easily shaped
5. High-carbon steels are hard
6. Stainless steels are resistant to corrosion
7. Pure Cu, Au, Fe are too soft for many uses
   1. Alloyed to make them harder

1. Good conductor of heat and electricity
2. Not react with water

1. Can be separated using distillation

1. Most are saturated, AlkAnes
   1. CnH₂n+2
2. High boiling point
3. Low viscosity
4. Flammable
5. Hydrocarbon fuels
   1. Most fuels including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen may also contain some sulfur
      1. Gases released into the atmosphere
         1. CO₂
         2. H₂O vapour
         3. CO
         4. SO₂
         5. Particulates
         6. Oxides of nitrogen
   2. The combustion of hydrocarbon fuel releases energy
      1. During combustion the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised
   3. Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
      1. Acid rain
      2. Sulphur can be removed from the fuels before they are burned e.g. in vehicles
      3. Can be removed from the waste gases after combustion e.g. power stations
   4. Carbon dioxide
      1. Global warming
   5. Solid particulates
      1. Global dimming
   6. Biofuels
      1. Biodiesel
      2. Bioethanol
      3. Are produced from plant material
      4. Ethical issues
         1. More people are needed to produce these fuels
         2. Increased income for farmers
         3. Reduce fuel prices due to the limit in demand for fossil fuels

1. By allowing it to evaporate and then condense at a number of different temperatures
   1. Fractional distillation

1. Cracking
   1. Hydrocarbons can be cracked to produce smaller more useful molecules
   2. Involves heating hydrocarbons to vaporise them
   3. The vapours are either passed over a
      1. Hot catalyst
      2. Mixed with steam and heated to a very high temperature
   4. So thermal decomposition can occur
   5. The products include
      1. AlkAnes
      2. Alkenes
         1. CnH₂n
         2. React with bromine water
            1. Colourless
      3. Some products are used as fuel
2. Polymers
   1. Polymerisation
      1. Small chain monomers
      2. Long chain molecules - Polymers

   2. Annotations:

      • AQA image
   3. Have useful applications
      1. Shape memory polymers
      2. Waterproof coatings
   4. Non-biodegradable
      1. Not broken down by microbes
      2. Problems with waste disposal
      3. Plastic bags are being made from polymers and cornstarch so that they can break down more easily
         1. Been developed
3. Ethanol
   1. Can be produced by hydration of ethene with steam in the presence of a catalyst
   2. Fermentation with yeast using renewable resources
      1. Sugar -> carbon dioxide + ethanol

1. Rich in oils that can be extracted by
   1. Nuts
   2. Seeds
   3. Fruit
   4. Pressing
   5. Distillation
   6. Water and other impurities are removed
2. Provide lots of energy
3. Lots of nutrients
4. Higher boiling point than water
   1. Cook foods at higher temperatures
   2. Quicker cooking
   3. Different flavours
   4. Increases the energy released when it's eaten

1. Annotations:

   • Chemistry GCSE AQA Textbook image page 91
2. Oils do not dissolve in water
   1. Used to produce emulsions
      1. Emulsions are thicker than water
3. Provide better
   1. Texture
   2. Coating ability
   3. Appearance
4. Hydrophobic
   1. 'tail'
   2. Long hydrocarbon chain
   3. Dissolve in oil
      1. Tiny droplets
5. Hydrophillic
   1. 'head'
   2. Carry a charge
6. Charged by the 'heads'
   1. Tiny oil droplets repel each other
      1. They spread out throughout

1. Vegetable oil
   1. Hardened
      1. Reacting with hydrogen
         1. Adds the C+C bonds
      2. Nickel catalyst
      3. 60˚C
      4. They have higher melting points
         1. Solids at room temperature
         2. Useful as spreads
   2. Unsaturated
      1. C=C
      2. Detected using bromine water

1. Crust
   1. Between 5km and 50km
      1. Average 6km thick under the oceans
      2. About 35km under continental areas
   2. Solid rock
2. Core
   1. Inner
      1. Solid rock
      2. 1,300km
   2. Outer
      1. Liquid iron and nickel (metal)
      2. 2,200km
3. Mantle
   1. 2,850km
   2. Behaves like a solid but is able to flow really slowly - liquid rock
4. Atmosphere
   1. 80% of the air in our atmosphere lies within 10km of the surface
      1. The atmosphere has been the same for the last 200 million years
   2. Nitrogen
      1. 78%
   3. Oxygen
      1. 21%
   4. Carbon dioxide
      1. 0.04%
   5. Nobel gases
      1. Ar 0.9%
   6. Water vapour
      1. Condensed to form the oceans
   7. First billion years
      1. Intense volcanic activity
         1. Released gases which formed the early atmosphere
   8. Plants and algae produced the oxygen that is now in the atmosphere
   9. CO₂
      1. CO₂ has become locked up in sedimentary rock
         1. As carbonate and fossil fuels
            1. Burning fossil fuels releases it back into the atmosphere
      2. Oceans act as a reservoir for CO₂
         1. Increased amounts of CO₂ absorbed affect the marine environment
   10. Air is a mixture of gases with different boiling points and can be fractionally distilled to provide a source of raw materials used in a variety of industrial processes
5. Theories
   1. 1
      1. Mainly CO₂
      2. Little or no O₂
      3. Like Venus or Mars today
      4. Water vapour
      5. Small proportions of methane and ammonia
   2. 2
      1. Miller Urey
         1. Interaction between
            1. Hydrocarbons
            2. Lightening
            3. Ammonia
         2. Amino acids
         3. Invalid because there was no O₂, and it was thought that O₂ was there

1. The earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle are cracked into large pieces
2. The movements can be sudden and disastrous
3. Occur at boundaries between tectonic plates
   1. Earthquakes
   2. Volcanic eruptions

1. Within the mantle
2. Heat released by
   1. Natural radioactive processes
3. Causes the plates to move
   1. A few centimetres a year