DEVELOPMENTAL DOMAINS

DEVELOPMENTAL DOMAINS

1. Cognitive Domain (Vygotsky's Theory)

   • Zone of Proximal Development
     • Target new information at the level of the learner
       • Make the new information relatable
         • Link it to information they are already familiar with
       • The target/new information should be challenging
         • If the task is too easy it leads to boredom
         • If the task is to hard it leads to frustration
         • The new information should be just above the learners current learning ability
           • This produces the optimal amount of learning
   • Learning Precedes Development
     • To develop you have to learn first
     • Learning produces development
       • Development doesn't necessarily produce learning
         • Learning disabilities
         • Slow learners
   • Cultural Tools
     • Language
     • Writing
     • Numbers
     • Art
     • Codes
   • Play is important
     • Playing, exercise and other activities allow the learner to stretch cognitive function through physical activities, which become useful for purely cognitive functions both in the short and long term
   • Criticisms of Vygotsky's Theory
     • Not every child is at the same level of development
       • What is the perfect challenge for some students, may be too difficult, or too easy for others
         • This means that some students will have an optimal learning experience while others may become either frustrated or bored
     • The theory assumes that all subjects require the same level of knowledge/understanding
     • Positives of Vygotsky's Theory
       • Culturally universal like Erikson's Theory
       • Takes into consideration the different speeds and ways in which children learn and develop
       • Focuses more on learning as a whole, rather than individual learning
       • Does not have a hierarchical structure
         • Allows for flexiblity
           • Individuals don't have to be bound by certain norms, or phases that they are expected complete in order
     • Only provides a general outline of development
   • Knowledge is co-constructed
     • Learning is not just dependant on the learner
       • Learning is affected (positively or negatively) by the environment
         • A good classroom and home environment is key to effective learning
           • A bad class/home environment will adversely affect the learner
       • Learning is affected (positively or negatively) by other people
         • Encouragement is important
           • Lack of encouragement is detrimental to the self-esteem of the individual
         • Constructive criticism is important
           • Criticism without reason is damaging to the individual and their desire to learn

2. Social and Emotional Domain (Erikson's Psychosocial Theory)

   • The two dimensions of 'self' in Erikson's Theory
     • Self - esteem
       • Self-esteem is how an individual sees and feels about themselves
         • The level of pride a person has in themselves
         • Affective judgement (feelings)
           • E.g. "It makes me feel good when I get a good mark in science."
     • Self-concept
       • Self-concept is the ideas, attitudes and beliefs an individual has about themselves in a specific area.
         • Self-concept can change and develop over time
         • Self-concept can be influenced by social comparison
         • Self-concept is the cognitive judgement an individual has about their aptitude in a specific area.
           • E.g. "I am good at Math, but I am not good at English."
   • Crises
     • In each of the eight stages of development, there is a set of 'crises' that must be overcome to reach optimal development within that stage, and develop the ego-identity of the individual
       • Adaptive (positive) resolution of the 'crises'
         • Promotes development and a greater self-concept
       • Maladaptive (negative) resolution of the 'crises'
         • Which supposedly makes it harder for the individual to move to the next stage of development, and may damage their self-concept
       • The 'crises' are caused by both biological maturation (age) and the social environment of the individual
   • The Eight Stages of Erikson's theory
     • Stage one - birth to 18 months
       • Trust vs. Mistrust
         • The individual has learnt to trust their parents/gardians
     • Stage two - 18 months to 3 years
       • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
         • Starts to show self expression (own opinions/will, tests the boundaries)
     • Stage three - 3 to 6 years
       • Initiative vs. Guilt
         • Becoming more independent, learning social relationships and beginning to understand their place in the family unit
     • Stage four - 6 to 12 years
       • Industry vs. Inferiority
         • Developing social skills, relationships with peers become extremely important, become aware of their strengths and weaknesses
     • Stage five - 13-19 years
       • Identity vs. confusion
         • Become aware of other peoples opinions of them, start to care about what they wear, how they look, how they can fit in etc.
     • Stage six - 20 to 35 years
       • Intimacy vs. Isolation
         • There's a strong desire to fall in love and start a family. Inability to develop intimacy in any relationship most likely produces feelings of isolation.
     • Stage seven - 35 to 65 years
       • Generativity vs. Stagnation
         • Working and contributing to society in one way or another, raising children. If unable to find things to do/be productive, it can lead to feelings of stagnation
     • Stage eight - 65 years +
       • Integrity vs. Dispair
         • Look back on their life, think about what they have and have not done. Not having done everything they wanted to do can lead to despair.
   • Criticisms of Erikson's Theory
     • Many people reflect on life before stage eight
       • For example, a 19 year old who has just been diagnosed with a terminal illness is forced to reflect on their life well before they reach the age of 65+
     • That an individual must go through 'crises' to develop their ego-identity
       • What does he mean by crises?
         • Not every person goes through major crises
     • It's not individualised because people deal with things differently
     • Positives of Erikson's Theory
       • Is universal across all cultures and time periods
         • Is not limited to one religion, race, or time
           • Is just as applicable to Hindu's, as to Muslims, as to Christians
       • Classed in stages not phases or transitions
         • Other theorists classed them as phases and transitions rather than stages
       • The stages are quite accurate in their age brackets
         • Give or take a few years
       • Maintains the view that development continues all through life
         • Development does not stop at any point

3. Spiritual Domain (Fowler's Theory)

   • The six stages of Fowler's theory (plus stage 0)
     • Stage zero - Infancy
       • Primal faith
         • The infant forms a trust in parents and or caregivers
           • This offsets separation anxiety in young children
           • May form also form a mistrust of parents and or caregivers
     • Stage four - Late adolesence to young adulthood
       • Individuative-reflective faith
         • Become more autonomous
           • Aren't defined by a group
         • Make their own decisions about their faith
           • Take responsibility for their own beliefs
             • Own their own faith
     • Stage six - Adulthood (may or may not occur)
       • Universalizing faith
         • Break away from the restraints of society and commit fully to their beliefs and values
           • E.g. Love, absolute justice, opposing evil in a non-violent way
           • Willing to pay the ultimate price for their decision
     • Stage two - School age
       • Mythic-literal faith
         • Can distinguish between make-believe and reality
         • Able to accept that there is a God
           • Able to accept that other people may not have the same belief as they do
           • View him as consistant, caring, and just ruler/parent figure
             • Child has the belief that good is rewarded and bad is punished
               • Learn later on that bad things happen to good people and good things happen to bad people
     • Stage three - Adolesence
       • Synthetic-conventional faith
         • Can think logically
         • Begin to question things
           • "Is god real?"
           • Critical thinking and reasoning
         • Many things begin to have a greater influence on their outlook on themselves and their beliefs.
           • Identity becomes a big concern
             • Concerned with others opnions of them
               • Their circle of friends becomes more important
                 • Crave a sense of belonging
               • Desire to fit in
     • Stage one - Toddler to Preschool age
       • Intuitive-projective faith
         • Not bound by logic
           • No real understanding of God but they believe
             • Haven't adopted the skepticism that comes with adulthood
           • Believe what they're told
             • E.g. Believe in Santa Claus, the Easter Bunny, etc.
     • Stage five - Adulthood
       • Conjunctive faith
         • More tolerant of other peoples values and beliefs
           • Recognise that understanding other beliefs can deepen their own values
         • Rely on their own values and beliefs
         • Makes sense of paradoxes within their faith
           • E.g. God is sovereign and yet lowered Himself to become a human and be put to death
   • Criticisms of Fowler's Theory
     • It's a hierarchical structure (like Piaget's Theory)
       • Some people dont follow a set structure
         • Possibly because of a pivotal and/or traumatic moment
           • May have caused them to reach a stage earlier or later than Fowler's theory states
     • Positives of Fowler's Theory
       • Most people follow these stages, whether in order or not
         • The stages up to toddler/preschool age are especially accurate as they have not yet been able to form their own opinions and beliefs about God
         • Even though the stages are meant to be hierarchical, they can also be flexible depending on the person
       • Fowler is true in saying that many people don't reach a stage in life where they are willing to pay the ultimate price for what they believe in
         • He is also true in saying that the people who do reach this stage, break away from the restraints of society and fully commit to their values and beliefs
           • For example: Persecuted Christians in Syria stand firm in their beliefs even unto death

4. Moral Developmental Theory (Kohlberg's Theory)

   • The three levels of Kohlberg's Theory
     • Level one: Pre-conventional moral reasoning
       • Stage 1
         • Punishment-Obedience Orientation
           • Obedience for obedience sake - because they were told to obey
             • People avoid breaking rules for fear of punishment
               • Criticisms
                 • Living in fear of punishment is not always healthy.
                   • For example: Women who have been abused don't want to report it because their attacker has threatened to hurt them if they told anyone
       • Stage 2
         • Instrumental Relativist Orientation
           • Personal reward and gain
             • Acting in accordance with individual interests (egocentrics)
               • "You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours."
                 • Criticisms
                   • Many times the needs of people conflict with each other and there can't always be a compromise
     • Level two: Conventional moral reasoning
       • Stage 3
         • Good boy/nice girl orientation
           • Living up to what is expected of them
             • Values maintaining relationships - "What will people think of me?"
               • Desires approval from people
                 • Criticims
                   • Everyone wants something different from the same person, this will eventually result in having to disappoint someone
       • Stage 4
         • Law and order orientation
           • The right thing to do is to contribute to society and fulfill social duties
             • Rules are to be followed and obeyed unless they're in conflict with other duties
               • Criticims
                 • Absolute obedience to authority is not healthy
                   • Example: Marshall Applewhite asked his cult to commit suicide to go up to a UFO waiting for them. All 39 people obeyed without question
     • Level three: Post-conventional moral reasoning
       • Stage 5
         • Social Contract orientation
           • Have an awareness of the social contracts between individuals and that they may have different moral perspectives
             • Rules shouldn't be blindly followed
               • Rules should exist to benefit all of society and should be changed if necessary
                 • Criticims
                   • What if the minority group didn't agree with the consensus of the majority, would they still follow those rules?
       • Stage 6
         • Universal Ethical Principles orientation
           • Right and wrong is based on personal ethical principals
             • Equal Human rights, Justice, etc.
               • Criticims
                 • Personal morality is not an infallible standard for behaviour
                   • A persons conscience is buildt upon the values and beliefs that they have adopted throughout life. Each person is different
               • Jesus is an example of a person who regarded His personal beliefs and morals as higher than the law
   • The Heinz Dilemma
     • Proposed a scenario and gave predictions on the reactions that would be common to each stage based on their moral reasoning's
   • Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
     • Positives of Kohlberg's Theory
       • His stages are not defined by an age group
         • This allows for more flexibility in regards to what stage a person is at
       • Once someone reaches a stage they rarely go backwards
         • 'Rarely' Indicates that it is possible, but highly unlikely
     • Some people are a mix of multiple stages
       • Teenagers, for example, are commonly a mix of stages 2, 3 and 5
     • It is supposed to be a hierarchical structure, with every person passing through the same stages in the same order
       • However, because it isn't limited by ages, it can be interpreted as more flexible

Images and files in the map