Operant conditioning 2

Operant conditioning 2

1. The scheduling of reinforcement will affect the speed of learning and resistance to extinction – Scheduling refers to when the reinforcer is presented and can vary between – Continuous (after every occurrence of the response) versus – Intermittent (after only some occurrences of the response) – A continuous schedule leads to faster learning than an intermittent schedule – However, an intermittent schedule leads to stronger resistance to extinction

2. Four basic types of reinforcement schedules

   • Fixed ratio: reinforcer is given after a certain number of nonreinforced responses • e.g., bonus after every 10th sale
     • lower resitence to extinction. rapid responding higher ratios give higher rate of responding
       • fixxed ratio on a continuous reinforcement schedule produces the fastest learning
   • – Variable ratio: reinforcer is given after a certain number of nonreinforced responses on average • e.g., Poker machines
     • lower restitence to exstinction, high and steady rate of responding. higher ratios give higher rate of repsonding
       • dosnt require a set number but. it changes upon an average ie 10 sales then 5 sales then 15 sales to gain the reward ie . i e Poker machines
   • Fixed interval: reinforcer is given following the first response after a certain time interval has elapsed • e.g., annual sales ie getting paided weekly or fortnightly
     • lower resitence to exstinction. long pause after reinforcement. shorter intervals gice higher rate of responding
   • Variable interval: reinforcer is given following the first response after a certain time interval has elapsed on average • e.g., radio station giveaways
     • higher resistance to extinction. low and steady rate of responding. shorter intervals give higher rate of
   • Which reinforcement schedule produces the steadiest rate of responding? • Variable interval – Which reinforcement schedule produces the greatest resistance to extinction? • Variable interval and variable ratio
     • People do not live in simple environments – there can be many responses and many reinforcers or punishers – There may be concurrent types of reinforcement or concurrent schedules of reinforcement • A pigeon may peck at two disks that have different reinforcement contingencies
       • Matching law states that under concurrent schedules, the relative rate of responding to each alternative matches the relative rate of reinforcement
       • Cognitive-Social Learning
         • Cognitive-social learning incorporates classical and operant conditioning, but also adds cognitive and social aspects of learning – There are several pieces of evidence suggesting that our understanding of behaviour can be enhanced by incorporating cognitive and social theory
           • Social learning occurs when people learn from others
             • Modelling (vicarious learning occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others (models) – Albert Bandura is a major investigator in this form of learning in his classic “Bobo studies” – Children who watched an adult model act aggressively towards a bobo doll were more likely to also be aggressive towards the doll)
         • Latent learning – Tolman showed that learning could occur in the absence of reinforcement – Rats that explored a maze in the absence of reinforcement for 10 trials were later able to perform at the same level as rats who were given reinforcement from the first trial – This “latent learning” was suggested to be due to the rats forming cognitive maps
           • • Learned helplessness – Seligman showed that dogs that were given electric shocks that they could not escape from stopped trying to escape, even when put into a situation where they could escape – Learned helplessness may contribute to depression • People with a pessimistic explanatory style see bad events as caused by themselves (internal), are stable (unlikely to change), and global (broad in impacting their lives)
             • locus of control may underly why individuals have depression
             • Tutelage – Learning through verbal and/or visual instructions – Formal aspects of learning in schools and universities
           • Modelling is thought to be mediated by 4 processes
             • Attention attend to another person’s behaviour
             • retention- remember the observation
             • motivation -you will only replicate the observed behaviour if you are motivated
             • replication-replicate the observed behaviour