Human Memory

Human Memory

1. Memory

   • Involves several important process of encoding, storage and retrieval. Forgetting occurs due to problems in one of the three steps.  -To remember the memory, it is actively reconstructed from multiple pieces from multiple locations in the brain.
   • Encoding
     • We must encode information properly to remember things such as the names of people you just met. Attention- Focussing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Attention plays a role in encoding because we must focus on the info. to properly encode it. Cocktail party Phenomenon- We can talk to one person and tune out everything else, except our name. If we pay attention to two things at one, one will suffer. Effortful Processing- Intentionally listening. Automatic Processing- Remembering something unintentionally. Encoding Specifity Principle- Various pieces of information are stored at the same time, type of situation, mood, or place.
     • Levels of Processing Theory
       • Deeper levels of processing (encoding) that result in being able to remember something longer. 1. Structural Processing- Shallow processing (remembering it has a capital letter) 2.Phenomic Processing- Intermediate processing (say word silently) 3. Semantic Encoding- Deep processing (learn meaning so you think about it)
     • Enriching Encoding
       • Things we can do to get information from short term to long term more effectively 1. Elaboration- Linking things that are to be remembered to other things that you already know. 2. Visual Imagery- Creating mental or actual pictures to represent information. 3. Self-referant Encoding- Decides how or whether information is personally relevant. Promotes elaboration and better organization. 4. Other Sensory info.- Memory is enhanced by using all 5 senses. Dual Encoding Theory- Memory is enhanced by using 2 or more encoding strategies because it provides multiple pathways for retrieval.
   • Storage
     • Refers to how memory is maintained and retained in our brain. Our long term memory has places for out info., such as a clean and organized room.
     • Multi-Stores Model of Memory
       • Most models refer to storage as having multiple levels (stores). All have different characteristics, depending on the type of information processed, and the length of time.
     • Short-Term Memory
       • Limited Capacity store that can retain unrehearsed information for up to 20 seconds. Short-Term Memory Capacity- George Miller (1956), gave people a number of items and got them to recall them, the number was about 7, plus or minus 2. Recent research suggests that prevents subjects from chunking and rehearsing says 4 items, plus or minus 1. Chunking- Storing information in familiar or meaningful units.  Rehearsal- Repeating words, or thinking info over. Maintenance rehearsal is done to keep things in memory and elaborate rehearsal is done to remember it later by thinking about it more.
       • Working Memory
         • Limited capacity storage to temporarily maintain and store information. It provides interface between senses, long-term memory and actions. It allows us to retrieve from our LTM and use it, to understand things such as words. Working Memory Capacity- Ones ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention,and is influenced by heredity and stress.
     • Long-Term Memory
       • Unlimited capacity to store information for days, weeks or years. Flashbulb Memories- Vivid recollections of momentous events. People are influenced by emotion to be attached to those memories. May not be permanent or accurate.
       • How Knowledge is Represented or Organized
         • Cluster- Remember similar items in groups. Conceptual Hierarchies- Multilevel classification system. Schemes- Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event which we understand from previous experience. Semantic Networks- Nodes that represent concepts and are joined to related concepts. Connectivist Networks and PDP models- Cognitive processes that depend on patterns of activation of something like neural networks.
     • Sensory Memory
       • Capacity to preserve sensory information for 1/4 of a second in its original form. Partial Report (Sperling)- Classical experiment on visual sensory store.
   • Retrieval
     • Getting Information out of the memory Tip of Tongue Phenomenon- Temporary inability to remember something accompanied by an "just out of reach" feeling. Reinstating the Context- Memories can be jogged with retrieval cues, one type is contextual cues.
     • Misinformation Effect
       • Reconstructed memories are not accurate, likely because of what fits a persons schema. People do not always provide accurate eyewitness information as well. Primimg- Our attitudes prime to make us notice certain things or trigger associated threads to help us remember.Studies of memory reconstruction about the misinformation effect states it involves three stages:1) Subjects view an event2) They are exposed to information about event, some of which are misleading.3) Subjects later tested on what they remember about it.
     • Source and Reality Monitoring
       • Source Monitoring- making decisions about the origins of memories, not necessarily encoded at the same time we learn the information. Destination Monitoring- To whom did you tell something Reality Monitoring- subtype of source monitoring. Memory from external or internal resources. More likely to believe something really happened if:  1) Memory is rich in sensory information 2) You have contextual information

2. Forgetting

   • Forgetting is due to problems in the 3 processes of memory. -Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) studied forgetting on himself by memorizing 420 lists of syllables and tested memory at various times. He found that we forget a majority of things shortly after learning and that if the information has meaning, the curve is not as sharp. Forgetting Curve- What Ebbinghaus measured, it graphs retention and forgrttingover time. It takes place from when we receive the information to the measure of forgetting.
   • Why We Forget
     • Ineffective Coding- Something that has not been remembered or even encoded. Psuedoforgetting is thinking we forgot, but we actually didn't encode it due to lack of attention. Sometimes coding is just done ineffectively. Decay- Has to do with storage, memory traces fade with time, not just passage of time, but what happens within the time. Interference- If a subject tries to remember something, but then must remember something else, and interferes with the original thought. Proactive interference is when information we already know interferes with the memory. Retroactive interference is when new information interferes with the old memory. Retrieval Failure- Some people forget due to retrieval problems, mismatch between encoding and retrieval. The value of retrieval depends on the how well it corresponds to the memory code. Ecoding process and process stimulated by retention measure need to match as well as retrieval cues. Motivated Forgetting- Comes from Freuds idea and refers to things you do not want to think about. It is called repression and keeps distressing thoughts and feelings buried. Repressed memories are horrible memories that people repress to forget. Hypnotic Psuedomemory are memories that are implanted while under hypnosis, and are likely to be reported as true even though they may not be.
   • Measures of Forgetting
     • To measure forgetting, you must also measure retention/remembering. Retention is the proportion of material retained. Retention Interval- Length of time between material given to remember and the time to forget it. Three Principles of Measuring Forgetting and Retention: 1)Recall- Requires subjects to reproduce information without any cues. 2) Recognition-Requires subject to select previously learned information from a number of options (Usually yield higher scores than recall).  3) Relearning- Requires a subject to memorize information for a second time to determine how much effort is saved from re-learning.

3. Physiology of Memory

   • Some memories depend on increase or decrease of neurotransmitters in certain synapses (Eric Kendall). Hormones influence memeory storage by affecting neurotransmitter activity (James McGaugh), other studies showed adequate protein synthesis helps build memories. Some Neurons become potentiated when they fire quite often when remembering things to make it easier to remember. Neural Circuits- Specific memories depend on loclaized neural circuits in the brain. May be possible to map out specific circuits for specific memories. Unconditioned response still makes responses, but the conditioned stimulus it is paired with is not remembered if part of the brain is destroyed. Long-Term Potentiation- Long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway. Can be produced by electrical stimulation. Memory formation may actually allow new dendrites to form along these pathways.
   • Anatomy of Memory
     • Organic Amnesia- Extensive memory loss due to a head injury 1) Retrograde Amnesia- Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury or onset of amnesia. 2) Anterograde Amnesia- Loss of memories for events that occur after onset of amnesia.
   • Systems and Types of Memory
     • Implicit Memory- Remembering something you did not intend to. Explicit Memory- Intentionally remembered memories Declarative Memory System- Handles factual information, such as definitions, math concepts, faces and dates. Procedural Memory System- Memory for actions, skills and conditioned responses, not very conscious. Prospective Memory- Recalling something you must do in the future. Retrospective Memory- Remembering past events or facts.
     • Parts of Declarative memory
       • Semantic- General facts. Episodic- Personal facts and experiences.

4. Improving Memory

   • Mneumonic system- Methods to increase recall of information. This uses information already in the long-term memory and organizes it better for better recall. Overlearning- Rehearse and learning of information you think you already know. Serial-Position Effect- Is easy to learn specific information of start and end of lists, so change the difficult information to the beginning. Distributed Practice- Do not try to remember everything at one, spread it out. Keyword Method- Relate things to concrete words that can be pictured. Acrostics- First letter of words to make a sentence. Acronyms- Make up a word from the first letters of words. Narrative methods- Make a story or a song. Rhymes- Rhyme things to the words to remember. Method of Loci- Associate items with locations. Pey-word Method- Similar to rhyming Ex. One is a bun, two is a shoe.

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