Learning

Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

   • A neutral stimulus can acquire the capacity to elicit a response evoked by another stimulus. Originally described by Ivan Pavlov.
     • Everyday responses go through classical conditioning, including phobias, fears, and pleasant emotional responses. Physiological responses , immune and sexual function respond to classical conditioning.
       • A conditioned response may be weakened and put out entirely when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
         • Conditioning may generalize to additional stimuli that are stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Opposite of generalization is discrimination, which involves not responding to stimuli that resemble the original conditioned stimulus.
           • Cognitive processes play a larger role in conditioning than originally believed.

2. Operant Conditioning

   • Involves mostly voluntary responses that are governed by their consequences.
     • Dependent variable is the rate of response over time. When responding is shown graphically, steep slopes indicate rapid responding. New operant responses can be shaped by gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response. Extinction occurs when reinforcement for a response in terminated and the rate of that response declines.
       • Responses can be straightened through either the presentation of positive reinforcers or the removal of negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement regulates escape and avoidance learning.
   • Responses are regulated by discriminative stimuli that are cues for the likelihood of obtaining reinforcers. Stimuli are subject to the same processes of generalization and discrimination that occur in classical conditioning.
     • Delayed reinforcement slows the process of conditioning. Primary reinforcers are unlearned; secondary reinforcers acquire their reinforcing quality through conditioning.
       • Intermittent schedules of reinforcement produce greater resistance to extinction than similar continuous schedules. Ratio schedules tend to yield higher rates of response than interval schedules. Shorter intervals and higher ratios are associated with faster responding.

3. Observational Learning

   • An organism is conditioned by watching a models conditioning. Both classical and operant conditioning can occur through observational learning, which is dependent on attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
     • Observational learning can account for the influence of mass media on behavior. Principles have also been used to explain why physical punishment increases aggressive behavior.

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