Health Research Methodology

Description

Mind Map on Health Research Methodology, created by Brittany Smith on 06/04/2014.
Brittany Smith
Mind Map by Brittany Smith, updated more than 1 year ago
Brittany Smith
Created by Brittany Smith over 10 years ago
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Resource summary

Health Research Methodology
  1. Lecture 1: Introduction
    1. What is research?

      Annotations:

      • Harnessing of curiosity A search for knowledge Any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories
      1. What is Social research?

        Annotations:

        • Academic research which uses the social sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration: to formulate research topics, to interpret the findings
        • Social sciences focus on whole people or groups of people such as: Psychology, Sociology, Education, Human geography, Politics
        • Focus on things such as: -Attitudes -Perceptions -Knowledge -Experiences -Coping Strategies -Behaviours
        1. Whole people or groups of people
        2. Social research vs. Academic research

          Annotations:

          • Academic uses the natural or physical sciences for conceptual and theoretical inspiration. Natural or physical sciences that focus on non-human subjects or parts of the body.
          1. Bio/Chem/Biomed/Paramed
          2. Social Determinants of health

            Annotations:

            • -Health services -Income and social status -Employment and working conditions -Biology and genetic endowment -Culture -Social support networks -Social environments -Personal health practices and coping skills -Education -Physical environments -Healthy child development Gender
            1. Social health research

              Annotations:

              • -Peoples perceptions, behaviours and experiences in the face of health and illness -Peoples experience of health care -Peoles coping and management strategies in relation to stressful events -Peoples societal reactions to illness  -The functioning of health services in relation to its effect on people
              1. Biomedical model

                Annotations:

                • -Physical and chemical disease processes and treatment -Disease casued by aetiological agents changing body structure and function -Emphasis on numerical measurement using physical and chemical data (Usually quantitative, objective) -Absence of disease
                1. Social Model

                  Annotations:

                  • -Peoples perceptions, behaviours and experiences relation to health and illness -Illness/health a combined function of biological (e.g genetics) social (e.g poverty) and psychological factors and predisposition -Emphasis on non-numeric or subjective measures (e.g participants reports of experience, feelings and behaviour) -A state of complete physical, psychological and social wellbeing
                2. Lecture 2: The research process
                  1. Main phases of research process
                    1. Design

                      Annotations:

                      • Is envisioning and planning everything up to presenting the final written report of findngs
                      1. Implementation

                        Annotations:

                        • Is the contact phase, doing inlc data collection
                        1. Analysis

                          Annotations:

                          • Of the data collected
                          1. Reporting

                            Annotations:

                            • Results in a written report for others to review and critique
                          2. Iterative

                            Annotations:

                            • The steps in the design phase are iterative: Involve a cycle of adjustments the get one step closer to a desired outcome (refining)
                            1. Social health research topics

                              Annotations:

                              • -Right for the field -Right for the unit -Right for you: Interest, Scope -Well articulated: Clear and thorough
                              1. Suit a novice researcher

                                Annotations:

                                • Ethical consideration: Sensitive topics, Vulnerable groups Practicality: Scope (not too complex), Participants are easily accessable
                              2. Purposes of researching
                                1. Describing a phenomenon

                                  Annotations:

                                  • Prevalence of a health issue
                                  1. Explaining causes and consequences of a phenomenon

                                    Annotations:

                                    • Why people continue to exhibit poor health behaviours
                                    1. Evaluating a phenomenon

                                      Annotations:

                                      • e.g a health services program
                                      1. Predicting an outcome

                                        Annotations:

                                        • Predicting outcomes of a health issue
                                        1. Changing outcomes through intervention

                                          Annotations:

                                          • Introducing a new health promotion cmapaign
                                        2. Research question

                                          Annotations:

                                          • -Theory -Methods -Purposes Sampling strategy
                                          1. Aim

                                            Annotations:

                                            • Overall statement of research problem
                                            • Should include:  -Topic -Purpose or general intention of research -Written in lay terms so easily understood -Deliberately general
                                            1. Questions

                                              Annotations:

                                              • Specific objectives or processes that will lead to achieving the overall aim
                                              • SHould include: -Topic -Purpose or general intention of research -Who, what, when, and where -Be structured as a formal question
                                              1. Sub-questions

                                                Annotations:

                                                • Or strategy objectives: Strategies to achieve each objective
                                                • -Develop sub questions which operationalise the research questions -They elaborate on your main question (depth) -They do not expand your question -They guide the development of your questionaire questions -They are usually valuable, but not always essential
                                              2. Key concepts

                                                Annotations:

                                                • -Terms (Concepts and ideas) that must be precisely understood in order to ensure that most readers will understand exactly: What question you are asking, and what questions you are not asking
                                                1. Terms of art
                                                  1. Defined?

                                                    Annotations:

                                                    • -In disclipinary context -How scholars define the terms -How researchers doing similar research define the terms Other trade and popular press defenitions -Not just a dictionary defenition
                                                  2. Literature review
                                                    1. Critical review

                                                      Annotations:

                                                      • -Not just reporting -Integrating and analysing
                                                      1. Scholarly literature
                                                        1. Purposes

                                                          Annotations:

                                                          • -Define the problem -Establish the extent of the problem (Prevalence) -Understand implications or outcomes of the problem -Identify research previously conducted that is similar to you proposal -Compare and contrast findings in literature -Understand limitations or gaps in past research and what additional research is needed to address gaps -Clearly and narrowly define your study to contribute to the exisitng knowledge base as reflected in the literature
                                                      2. Lecture 3: Research design
                                                        1. Strategies and theories

                                                          Annotations:

                                                          • Explain the concepts, assumptions, and reasoning behind the research process
                                                          1. Practices

                                                            Annotations:

                                                            • Articulate the techniques and procedures we follow in "doing" research to ensure that the theoretical concerns are properly addressed
                                                            1. Knowledge

                                                              Annotations:

                                                              • Is the accepted body of facts or ideas which is acquired through the use of senses or reason.  Over human history, there ahave been many ways of knowing, including: -Divine revalation -Traditions, or authority of elders -Research
                                                              1. Ontology: the nature of reality

                                                                Annotations:

                                                                • The question of whether or not there is a single objective reality. -reality refers to the existance of what is real in the natural or social world
                                                                1. Objective

                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                  • Implies: -Single truth about what is real -Objective detachment, be outside and observe -Ensure research process is free from bias
                                                                  1. Subjective

                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                    • Implies: -Multiple valid truths about what is real -Reality largely a function of 'who' is looking -Reduce different types of bias but acknowledge subjectivity
                                                                  2. Epistemology: How we know

                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                    • -Concerned with the nature of knowledge and how it is obtained.  -Contemplates what is or should be regarded as acceptable knowledge in a disclipine. -A central question is whether the social world can and should be studied according to the same principle, procedures and ethos as the natural or physical world
                                                                    1. Positivism
                                                                      1. Single truth

                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                        • -Reality is independant of our experience of it -Reality offers a single truth -Reality can be accessed through careful thinking, observing (esp via the senses) and recording of our experiences -Adopts and objective ontology
                                                                        1. In practice

                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                          • -View the researcher as objective observer -Aim to explain, predict or control that objective reality -strive towards measurability, objectivity, reducing uncertainty -Use standardised procedure (hypothesis testing common) -Value knowledge based on objective measurements of the real world not opinions and beliefs of individuals -Believe social science research methods should be scientific in the same way as the physical sciences such as physical or chemistry
                                                                        2. Interpretivism
                                                                          1. Multiple truths

                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                            • -Reality is both socially/psychologically constructed (thought, language, culture) and based in physical realities (senses) -Reality consists of multiple truths that are individually constructed by research participants interpretation in their own reality -Reality is not firmly rooted in nature, but is a product of our own making -Adopts a subjective ontology
                                                                            1. In practice

                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                              • -View research as a subjective process due to the involvement of researcher (bias introduced via interpretation) and conduct of the research -Aim to understand reality as experienced by the poeple whom they are studying -Value knowledge based on research participants interpretation of their own reality -Believe social science research methods should be scientific but different logic of research procedure are required for social and natural sciences 
                                                                          2. Significance of ontology and epistemology

                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                            • -Helps explain why we practice research the way we do -Why we teach the procedure that you learn -offers insight into which methods you select to conduct your research -increases your creativity throughout the research process
                                                                            1. Purposes of research

                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                              • A study may have more than one of these purposes -Important to be clear what your are becasue they have implications for design
                                                                              1. Exploration
                                                                                1. Description
                                                                                  1. Explaination
                                                                                    1. Curiosity and research imagination

                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                      • -Research design is as much about creativity and imagination -Begin design process with a broad lens, narrow as you go -Expect iterations -Inflexibility may lead to research designs that don't capture the information you really want and need -Learn the theory and practice, but dont let magical process of inquiry be just a series of procedures
                                                                                    2. Research design

                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                      • -The research design is a collection of features that specify how you will go about answering your questions -Research design is driven by theoretical perspective, purpose and practicality
                                                                                      • -Your design should  usually be selected to effectively answer your research question and address your aims-not the other way around -There are numerous designs that can address any given research question and aim -At times, change can happen in the other direction too: You can modify your research questions somewhat in order to be able to better utilise a particular design
                                                                                      1. Main purpose
                                                                                        1. Descriptive

                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                          • -Most commonly used in health research to describe what is happening in the study population
                                                                                          1. Explanatory

                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                            • -In health research looks at why a health issue is occuring in a population -Explanatory design seeks to understand the effect of one variable on another variable -Explanatory designs are usually quant design
                                                                                            1. Dependant variables

                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                              • -Also called outcome variable -This is the focus of your research -The variable whose value will 'depend' on the nature of another variable
                                                                                              1. Independant variables

                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                • -Also called predictors or explanatory variables -Those variables thought to influence your dependant variable -Often more than one
                                                                                            2. Time dimensional
                                                                                              1. Cross sectional

                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                • -Data collected in one time period -Snapshot of study participants at one time in their life
                                                                                                1. Longitudinal

                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                  • -Occurs over time, data collected in multiple time periods -Time periods can vary, from months to years
                                                                                                2. Theoretical approach

                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                  • -This feature stongly relates to the epistemologies  -It also speaks to the form of data to be collected and analysed in the reseach
                                                                                                  1. Quantitative

                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                    • -Science of numbers -Main data collected in words -Translated to numbers -Analysed as numbers -Results reported in numbers and described as words
                                                                                                    1. Deduction

                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                      • -Theory then data -Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected -quantitative
                                                                                                    2. Qualitative

                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                      • -Word science -Main data collected as words -Word analysed -Findings reported in words
                                                                                                      1. Induction

                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                        • -Data then theory -Generalisable inferences from observations -Qualitative research
                                                                                                      2. Mixed methods

                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                        • -To triangulate: Confirm findings of qual study using quant or vice versa -To complement: Look at differenc easpects of questions posed
                                                                                                  2. Lecture 4: Rigour

                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                    • -Methods a re specific strategies, practices and techniques researchers use to collect, process and analyse data
                                                                                                    1. Data collection methods

                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                      • Humans have only a limited number of ways of finding out about social life -Ask -Observe -Read
                                                                                                      1. Quantitative data collection

                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                        • -RCT's -Questionaires (Closed qs) -Interviews (Structured) -Observation (quantified) -Content analysis -Meta analysis
                                                                                                        1. Qualitative data collection methods

                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                          • -Questionaires (open qs) -Interviews (Semi/unstructured) -Observation (interpreted) -Focus groups -Content analysis -Meta analysis
                                                                                                        2. Rigour

                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                          • -The methods we chose, the processes that we follow in research practice are strongly influences by the pursuit of rigour -Rogourous research design and processes result in high quality and more valuable results -Rigour is acheived differently depending on whether one follows a quant/qual approach
                                                                                                          1. Quantitative rigour

                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                            • -All measurements involve some degree of error -Rigour in quant research is reflected in the concepts of validity and reliability -Reliability refers to the stability if the findings -Validity refers to the truthfulness of findings -Replication relates repeating study with same results
                                                                                                            1. Reliability

                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                              • -Refers to the extent to which a measurement instrument is dependable, stable and consistent when repeated with other identical conditions -Concerned with whether a finding is reproducible at other times by other researchers -Several different type of reliability e.g stability, internal reliability and inter-observer consistency 
                                                                                                              1. Validity

                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                • -Refers to the integrity of the conclusions, are they trustworthy? -Measurement validity -External or study validity -Internal validity
                                                                                                                1. Measurement validity

                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                  • -The degree to which something measures what it is supposed to measure. Sub types include: -Face validity -COncurrent validity -Predictive validity
                                                                                                                  1. External validity

                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                    • -Concerned with whether the study can be generalised beyond the specific research context (generalisability) -Who is selected as participantsd become crucial to ensuring external valdity (sampling method is key)
                                                                                                                    1. Internal validity

                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                      • -Concerned with whether a conclusion that incorporates o causal relationship between two variables holds water -It asks how confident can we be that the independant variable relly id at least partially responsible for that variation in the dependant variable
                                                                                                                  2. Qualitative rigour

                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                    • -Rigour in qualitative research is reflected in the concepts of trustworthiness as embodied by -Credibility -Transferability -Dependibilyt -In health research this means that the findings must be authentic enough to allow practitioners to act upon them with confidence -The epistomological position is that relaity is socially constructed makes the formal concepts of external validity and reliability incompatible measures for rigour in qualitative research
                                                                                                                    1. Credibility

                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                      • =Internal validity -The fit between what participants say and the representation of those viewpoints by the researcher.  -Cna the findings be considered truthful?
                                                                                                                      1. Transferability

                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                        • =External validity -The extent to which qualitative findings offer insights within contexts other than the circumstances actually studied by the researcher
                                                                                                                        1. Dependability

                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                          • =Reliability -Whether the research conclusions mathch the actual data that has been collected
                                                                                                                          1. Confirmability

                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                            • =Objectivity -The degree to whcih findings are linked to the participants responses rather than the researchers bias, motivation, interests or perspectives
                                                                                                                          2. Quantitative/Qualitative rigour

                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                            • -Assesing rigour is essential to research practice in both quan/qual approaches -The specific concepts and measures of rigour differ between the approaches -Concerns about these different types of rigour (e.g types of validity) are reflected -Different types of rigour are assessed at differnt points in the process: -Selecting participants -Designing our research instrument -A good understanding of the concepts and measures of rigour are important for researchers both in: -Selecting the methods and techniques that are used in conduction the research -evaluating the results of other researhers studies
                                                                                                                          3. Study participants

                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                            • -Identify who your research question is seeking information from-What are their collective characteristics? -Who can we get this information from? -How will you reach them? -Will they want to talk with you?
                                                                                                                            1. Units of analysis

                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                              • -Are the "what" or "whom" that is to be studied -Individuals -Households -Families -Organisations
                                                                                                                              1. Characterising study participants

                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                • -What characteristics do you want participants to have? -What qualities should they have in common? -What qualities do you want them to be diverse in? -What qualities should none of them have?
                                                                                                                                1. Characteristics

                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                  • -Gender -Ethnicity -Country of birth -SES -Age -Role: Student, staff -Course of study -Other descriptors
                                                                                                                              2. Lecture 5: Quantitative data collection
                                                                                                                                1. Randomised control trials

                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                  • -Method of social science experimentation -Purpose: To see if one treatment/intervention is better than another (explanatory,indep/dep variable) -Involves pre-testing and post testing dependant variable -Involve at least one experimental (Recieve intervention) and one control group (do not receieve intervention) -People are randomly allocated to groups
                                                                                                                                  1. Questionnaires

                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                    • -Def: A type of written survey where respondants are asked a series of questions in a standard manner so that responses can be easily analysed -Quant: Which colour do you prefer? Red, blue or yellow? -Qual: Where do you believe your favourite colour preference comes from?
                                                                                                                                    • -May be deliverd in multiple modes, e.g in person, by post or electronically -Have predominantly close ended questions with standardised reponse options
                                                                                                                                    1. Strengths

                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                      • -With close ended questions, easily quantified and statitically alalysed -Enable large sample, improve generalisability -Economic and efficient -Useful for collecting information about phenomnea that cannot be directly observed or measured e.g beliefs, attitudes, opinions, expectations and knowledge
                                                                                                                                      1. Weaknesses

                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                        • -Standardisation precludes some diversity of response (Superficial coverage of complex topuics) -Difficult in dealing with context of social life, doesn' allow for whole life picture to emerge -Artificiality: Self report constraints by questionnaire structure, not necessarily reflecting actual action or belief (weak on validity)
                                                                                                                                        1. Components

                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                          • -Information letter and consent form -Heading and title -Instructions: General direction about how to complete questionnaire and directions embedded in each question on how to answer -Question sections: Demographics and topical themes
                                                                                                                                          1. Design considerations

                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                            • -Clarity of purpose -Knowing your audience -Question subjects -Types of questions -Length of instrument -Order of questions
                                                                                                                                            1. Clarity of purpose

                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                              • -Answer your research questions and sub questions -Be focused, what type of information are you trying to elicit? -Factual questions: Personal info -Factual questions: About others or things -Attitudes: What people believe to be valuable -Beliefs: What people believe to be true
                                                                                                                                              1. Audience

                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                • Ne aware of your audiesnce/Study population: -Age -Location -Readign abilities -Physical disabilities -Time -Access to technology -KNowledge of topic -Ability to remember -Ability to articulate -Effort required to answer the questions
                                                                                                                                              2. Question subjects
                                                                                                                                                1. Demographics

                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                  • -Variable which describe the study population -Age -Gender -SES -Income -Postcode -Education -Siblings Useful to know so we are able to generalise
                                                                                                                                                2. Question ordering

                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                  • Use funnel formula: -From broad focus to more specific content -From impersonal to more personal -From non sensitive to more sensitive Group qiestions by topic or theme: -Theme often related to sub question area
                                                                                                                                                  1. Question formats
                                                                                                                                                    1. Close ended questions

                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                      • Questions with pre-coded response options, a set of fixed alternatives to choose from -Dichotomous -Likert scale -Guttman scale -Multiple choice-1 response -Multiple choice-many responses -Rank order
                                                                                                                                                      1. Advantages

                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                        • -Easy for respondant to complete -Easy to process answers for data analysis -Answers may help clarify meaning of question
                                                                                                                                                        1. Disadvantages

                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                          • MIssing an important and valuable reply
                                                                                                                                                          1. Diochotomous

                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                            • -Di meaning two -One or the tiher but not both -e.g what is your gender: male or female?
                                                                                                                                                            1. Likert scale

                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                              • -Often used to measure the strength of attitudes -Response options provide a range from one extreme to the other (continuum) -Response options: 5-7 itmes -Respondants choose one of the options
                                                                                                                                                              1. Guttman scale

                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                • -Often used for concepts that are heirarchial (e.g age, education) -Response options include items on a scale with increasing intervals -Each increasing option implies options before it-prerequisites
                                                                                                                                                                1. Multiple choice

                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                  • -Statements with set response options -two types: choose one option, choose as many as apply
                                                                                                                                                                  1. Rank order

                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                    • -used to understand how important a list of features are compared with one antoher -Respondants are asked to rank response options in order of importance
                                                                                                                                                                  2. Open ended questions

                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                    • Questions with no response options
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Advantages

                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                      • -Can answer in own terms, all replies captured -Doesn't suggest answers, reveals more info about respondants level of knowledge and understanding -useful in exploring new areas -help to generate close ended questions
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Disadvantages

                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                        • -Requires greater effort from respondant -Requires greater effort to process answers for data analysis
                                                                                                                                                                      2. Writing topical questions

                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                        • -Take each of your research questions -For each question write down questions that would help you answer it -Consider all the different question types and styles to choose from
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Presenting close-ended questions

                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                          • -Number each question -Include instructions -Put the response options underneath the question Provide a means for respondants to clearly identify their response
                                                                                                                                                                  3. Interviews

                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                    • Def: Involve the collection of data through talking to respondents and recording their responses
                                                                                                                                                                    1. Observation

                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                      • -Systematic observation is a well established method in both the natural and social sciences -Systematic observation and recording of behaviours, actions, activities and interactions -Offers oppurtunity to understand more than what people say about complex situations
                                                                                                                                                                      1. Focus groups

                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                        • -Def: In depth interview conducted with a group (10-15 people)
                                                                                                                                                                        1. Meta analysis

                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                          • -Method that collects data from the results and/or raw data of other studies that have been done -Individual research studies are often small in scale and lack the abiloty to generalise to other or broader populations -By pooling results/data, one may be able to see patterns across many studies
                                                                                                                                                                          1. Concepts and definition

                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                            • -Concepts are categories for the organisation of ideas and observations -The building blocks of theory and represent the points around which social research is conducted
                                                                                                                                                                            1. Measurement

                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                              • -Identify fine differences -Provices a consistency  -Precise estimates of the degree of relationship between concepts
                                                                                                                                                                              • -Distinction between indicator and a measure? -Direct and indirect indicators -Relevance to what you want to measure in surverys
                                                                                                                                                                          2. Lecture 6:Sampling techniques
                                                                                                                                                                            1. What is sampling

                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                              • -Sampling is the process of deciding what or who you will collect data from -It is impossible to ask everyone to participate in out research, even if we wanted to -Two main elements of the sampling process involve: -Selecting who you will collect data from -How many observations you will have -Many sampling approaches avaliable, selection depends on the questions asked
                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sampling and rigour

                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                • -Sampling descisions affect study rigour: -Quant: The extent to which your studys results can be generalised back to the main population (External validity) -Qual: The extent to which your studys findings can offer insight to toher context (transferability)
                                                                                                                                                                                1. Limitations

                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                  • Limitations in transferability and problems with external validity can arise due to: -People selection: The wrong people or non-representative people into the study -Places selection: People from inappropriate locations to your research questions -Timing: Start your research at a time when other interventions or campaigns are running
                                                                                                                                                                                2. Type of sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                  • Two main types of sampling methods are: -Probability or random sampling -Non-probability or non random sampling Different research approaches use different type: -Quant uses probability sampling -Qual uses non-probability
                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Probability sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                    • -A sample that has been selected using random selection so that each unit in the population has a known chance of being selected -Means that findings for the sample can be generalised to the larger population
                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Probability sampling methods are techniques for selecting participants that respect the concept of study validity -Probability sampling methods involve strict rules for: -Identifying who study participants are and -statistically calculating how many participants are required
                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Probability and Quantitative

                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Essential to quant research approaches to ensure: -The sample reflects the population accurately so that it is a microcosm of the populations -thus, the findings fro the sample can be generalised to the larger population (external or study validity)
                                                                                                                                                                                      • Involving everyone offers most accurate results but: -Costly -Time consuming -Difficult to find everyone
                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Determining the sample
                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Theoretic population

                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                          • -Who is your theoretical study populatiuon? -Who would you like to generalise to?
                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Accessible population

                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                            • -Wgo is your accessible study population? -Similar qualities to theoretical but actually accessible
                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Sample frame

                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                              • -What is your sampling frame? -List of all possible participants, depends on sampling technique
                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Sample size

                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Calculated using statistical packages to make power calculations -Measure of how likely the study is to produce a statistically significant result -When the research is measureing a construct which is very prevalent we typically need fewer people -Conversley when we wish to explore the prevalence of a health issue which is not so common (mesothelioma) we need a much larger sample size
                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Statistical packages are avalaible which with the right info, can calculate how many people you need to select to have enough statistical power to detect difference
                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Sampling techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Sample

                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -What is your sample? -The group of actual people who you select to be in your study
                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Study participants

                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Who are your study participants? -The poeple who actually participate and complete your instrument
                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sampling methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Simple random sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -IN simple random sampling all elements of a population have equal chance of inclusion. -It is considered fair but rarely used in practice becasue the process demands: -Identify all elements in a population -Listing all the elements -Randomly selecting from the list
                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Systematic random sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                          • -Selecting every nth case within a defined population from a list which is not in a random order -Organisational list starting with most senior to leaset senior -Class list in alphabetical order -Patient admission list based on date of admission -It is easier to do thatn simple random sampling, but does not give every person in the population an equal chance of selection-introduced bias
                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Stratified random sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                            • -Dividing your population into groups to avoid getting a biased sample due to over/under representaion of one group (e.g males and females) -Then take a simple randome or systematic sample from eash group.  -Stratified random sampling can be: -Proportionate -Disproportionate
                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Proportionate
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Disproportionate

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -used when one sub group of the population is smaller than others but you want equal numbers in your final sample
                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Cluster random sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Population divided into clusters and these are selceted not people -May be selected using simple random or systematic sampling -Used as an easier way of accessing people with a common interest
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Multi-stage random sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Sampling clusters within clusters
                                                                                                                                                                                                              3. Non probability sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -A process in which units are not randomly selected from the popultaion and thus the probability of a unit being selected in advance is not known -Implies that some units in the population are more likely to be selected than others -Thus, the findings for the sample cannot be generalised to the larger populations but this is not the objective of qual research
                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Lecture 7: Ethical research
                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ethics in human research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                • All human interaction , including the interaction involved in human research has ethical dimensions. However ethical conduct is more than simply doing the right thing. It involves acting in the right spirit, out of an abiding respect and concern for ones fellow creatures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Human research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Human research is research conducted with or about: -People -Their data -Their tissue
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Taking poart in surveys, interviews or focus groups -Undergoing physiological or medical testing or treatment -Being observed by researcgers -Researchers having access to personal information or documents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Risks in human research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Human research has contributed enormously to human good -But human research is attended by risk ans may have negative effects on the research participant -Risk comes in different types and different degrees
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Realised risks

                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Despite the best care and planning and practice -Becasue of technical error -Becasue of ethical insensitivity -Becasue of of neglect or disregard -Because of deliberate and appaling violation of human beings
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  2. What is research ethics

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Do no harm: Making sure that our work and research does not hurt others or ourselves -Research ethics involves the study, practice and monitoring of ethical conduct in research -To main researcher ethical responsibilities: -Understand the risks posed to your participants -Eliminating or minimising them
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Research ethics formalised

                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Research ethics involves: -Principles -Practices Research ethics overseen by: -Individual researcher, personal responsibility -Governments through laws, regaulations ane regulatory bodies and processes -Research organisations rules and processes to ensure ethical research activities and outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. National statement

                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -Values and principles of ethical conduct -Research involving particular groups of participants -Research involving particular types of procedures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Fundamental ethical principals

                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Main principals shared throughout research world -Research merit and integrity -Beneficence and non-malificence -Respect and respect for autonomy -Justice Categories vary depending on organisation and author
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Research merit and integrity

                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • -Potential benefits of research outweigh mitigated harm -Researcher demonstrates a genuine intention to seek knowledge honestly and share it
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Beneficence and non-malificence

                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -Research provides benefits for the public good -There is no explotation or bad intention involved -Harm or discomfort to participants is minimised
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Respect and respect for autonomy

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Recognising the intrinsic value of human beings -Participants are honestly and thoroughly informed of nature, prupose and potential consequences of research before agreeing to participate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Justice

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Equitable distribution of benefits, risks and costs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Risk in human research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Human research is attendad by risk and have negative effects on the research participants -Risk come sin different type and differnt degrees -Sometimes risks are realised
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. What is risk?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Risk is a potential for harm, discomfort or inconvenience and is composed of two elements: -The liklihood of harm occuring -The severity of harm and its consequences should it occur
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Severity of risks

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Different levels of risk require different depths and complexity of review to obtain approval. Three main categories of risk: -Inconvenience -Discomfort -Harm
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Types of harm or discomfort

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Main types are: (these are not exhastive, others exist) -Physical (injury, illness, pain) -Psychological (feelings of fear or guilt related to disclosure) -Social harms (damamge to participants relationships with others) -Economic harm -Legal harm
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Sensitive research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • General areas deemed to be sensitive -Where research intrudes into the privacy sphere or delves into some deeply personal experience -Where the study is concerned with deviance or social control -Where the study impinges on the vested interwest of powerful persons or the exercise of coercion of domination -Where the research deals with things that are sacred to those being studied that they do not wish profaned
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Sensitive groups

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • -Women who are pregnant and the human foetus -Children and young people -People in dependant or unequal relationships -People highly dependant on medical care who may be unable to give consent -People with a cognitive impairment, an intellectual disability or a mental illness -People who may be involved in illegal activity -Aboriginal and torres straight islanders -People in other countries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        2. Weighing the risks and benefits

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • In designing a research project, researchers have an obligation to minimise the risks to participants -By thoroughly assessing the risk and -Proposing a plan to mitigate it -Research is ethically acceptable only when its potential benefits justify any risks involved in the research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        3. Ethical research practices

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • -Coinsiderations needed prior to implementing research -Researchers have obligation to minimise participants risks by: -Thoroughly assessing risk and proposing a plan to mitigate it -Sucessfully completing the ethics clearance process -Monitoring and adapting research to ensure ethical outcomes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. The ethics approval process

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • The ethics approval process is: -a formal process overseen by the organisation of which the research is a part -Whereby the researcher exercises her fundamental responsibility for ensuring ehtical conduct in her research by: -Assessing the nature and degree of the risk that your research poses your human participants -Proposing a plan for ensuring ethical treatment and eliminating or mitigating risk to acceptable levels
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Why do you need ethics approval?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Protection for: -Participants -Researcher -University -Community To observe ethical, professional and legal responsibilities Legislative requirements Access to funding
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Ethics at ECU

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -ECU has a commitment to ensure the conduct of ethical research -Policies for the conduct of ethical human research -Reporting requirements to the NHMRC All staff and students undertaking a research project must either: -Submit and ethics declaration form -Submit an application for ethics approval to the ECU human research wethics committee
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Committee

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Topic expertise -Human health and well being expertise -Spiritual leader -Legal expertise -Two lay people
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Ethical principals and practices

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Prior to implementation, successful completion of ethics approval process reflects: -Thorough assessment of potential harm -Specification of effective plan to mitigate Once Ethical clearance recieved, key implementation features prior to data collection: -Fully informing participants -Obtaining consent -Maintaining confidentiality Throughout research process: Continuing monitoring and redress of potential harm
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Informed consent

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Major step in implementiong your research Informed consent has two components: -Information and -Explicit consent
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Information

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • The researcher must provide honest and thorough information about the research: -Aim -Methods -Potential consequences The information must be presented in a way suitable to each participant Opportunity to ask any questions and discuss information and decision with others if they wish
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Information sheets

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Invitation for a participant to take part in your study: -Aim of the research -What they will be asked to do -Indication that their participation is voluntary and that they may withdraw consent at any time without predjudice -Declining to participate will not effect them in any way -Possible outcomes of study (publication) Measures taken to ensure privacy/confidentiality -Storage and destruction of data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Explicit consent

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • The guiding principle for researchers is that a persons decision to participate in research is to be: -Voluntary with ability to withdraw participation at any time -Based on sufficient information -Explicitly communicated, usually in writing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Consent forms

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • -Specific information about the participants involvement in the research and their signed and dated consent -Include your name and contact details -Statements indication consent -Must be kept seperate to completed questionnaires so participants cannot be identified
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Confidentiality

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Means that: -The true identity of particiapnts are concealed by ensuring that their names and other identifying information are kept seperately from the data that they provide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Lecture 8: Data analysis and presentation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • After data collection instrument design, whats next? IMplementation: -Determine methods (data collection and sampling) -Ethics clearance (research plans and processes) -Sampling (individual participants identified) -Pilot study -Data collection Analysis Reporting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Pilot study

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Trial of your data collection instrument find: -Wording of questions -Construction of instrument Trial of your data collection processes Trial on a group of people who are similar to the population selected for study Always conduct a pilot study before you use it on your main study population
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Data analysis and presentation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • After data collection: -Data analysis: Answering your research questions via techniques for examining data -Data presentation and reporting: Report results/findings from your data collection in the context of your research questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Data analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -Answering your research questions via techniques for examining data, preliminary steps included -Data preperation: Checking data for accuracy, entering the data into the computer; and developing/documenting a database -Data coding: The analytical process in which data are categorised to facilitate analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            2. Quantitative data

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -Data preparation: Checking data for accuracy, entering into the computer and developing/documenting a database -Data coding: Translating your participants answers to a form and format needed for analysis; 1st step in translating words to numbers -Data analysis: Via descriptive and inferential statistics -Data presentation and reporting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Quantitative data coding

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Data coding: Translating your participants answers to form and format needed for analysis; 1st step in translating words to numbers -For surberys, often used closed ended questions that have pre-coded answers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Quantitative data analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Descriptive

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Describe basic features of study data: Simply describing what is, what the data shows -Provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures -Together with simple graphical analysis, form basis of virtually every quantitative analysis -Both demographic and topical questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Inferential

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Investigative questions, models and hypotheses -Used to try to infer from the sample data what the population thinks, from our data to more general conditions -Used to make judgements of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened  by chance in this study
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Computer based data analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -Programs typically enable both descriptive and inferential statistical analysis -Common computer programs used to conduct statistical analysis: -SPSS -SAS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Data presentation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Results section of a report: -Demographics (descriptive) - Your data: Answers to your questionnaire (descriptive)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Presenting descriptive data

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Data are usually presented intables which allow you to show the reader what your respondant reported These tables typically follow the format of your questionnaire items: -Dichotomous -Likert scale -Guttman scale -Multiple choice
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Discussion section of a report

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Usually involves: -Presenting descriptive data from 1 or more questionnaire questions -Combining descriptive data from 1 or more questionnaire questions into 1 table -Presenting tables that report on inferential statistics -Summarising trends found in data, both descriptive and inferential -Relating these results to theory and other studies previously published (in lit review) -Reflecting on strengths and limitations of your study
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Conclusion

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Relating these results to purpose of study: What are the main contributors of your study
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Qualitative data

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • After data collection: -Data preperation: Checking data for accuracy, entering the data into the computer; and devloping/documenting a database -Data coding: The analytical process in which data are categorised to facilitate analysis -Data analysis: Answering your research questions via techniques for examining data -Data presentation and reporting
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Data preperation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -Transcribe focus group or interview (using software e.g VERBATIM) -From a 1.5 hour interview you can generate up to 10 pages of transcript
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Data coding

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Coding is generating an index of terms to help interpret and theorise in relation to your data -Distilling many words to fewer words/ideas -Comparable to the pre-coded response options in close ended questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. How?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Requires two raters in order to ensure rigour -Both raters read each transcroipt for familiarity -Each raters individually code by: -Read randomly selected transcripts independntly -Developing themes for each question in transcript -Every new theme or topic arising in question is marked (using numbers or coloured pens) -Look over themes on each transcript and devise master codes to represent all emergent themes Two raters come back together to compare theme and devise 1 set of master codes for each question -One p[erson then reads all codes and transcripts using master codes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                2. Data analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Provide ways of: -Discerning -Examining -Comparing and contrasting -Interpreting meaningful patterns or themes -Process of bringing order, structure and interpretation to the mass of collected data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Whereas quant analysis involes numbers and what they stand for, qual analysis deals in words -Guided by fewer unversal rules and standardised procedures than quant stat analysis -While not objective and standardised, it is systematic and intensely disclipined -It is not linear, it is iterativer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Less interested in how often a content category appears, and more interested in: -Ways language and visual imagery combine to create meaning -Attention paid to the discourses apprearing across a group of texts -Take a micro focus -Seek to investigate texts they are studying in detail rather than simply recording obvious features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Two common approaches: -Thematic analysis: Focus on the themes, what actually happened? -Narrative analysis: Focus on the whole story; How do people make sense of what happened and to what effect?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Thematic analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Kay queries: -What patterns and common themes emerge in responses dealing with specific items? How do these patterns (or lack thereof) helpo to illuminate the broader study questions? -Are there any deviations from these patters? If yes, are there any factors that might explain these atypical responses? What interesting stories emerge from the responses? How can these stories help to illuminate the broader study questions? -Do any of these patterns or findings suggest that additional data may need to be collected? Do any of the study questions need to be revised? -Do the patterns that emerge corroborate that findings of any corresponding qualitative analyses that have been conducted? If not, what might explain these descrepensies?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Computer based data analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Provide and organised storage system -Helps researchers locate themes electronically relatively easy rather than sorting through hard copy teranscripts -Does not analyse data-Simply allows you to retrieve themes quickly by catalouign your themes -Some packages include NVIVO and Nudist
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Findings section

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Some descriptive stats to descibe study sample (e.g tables) -Core analysis os presented in words -Data display: Primarily text, accompanied by a diagram, chart or matrix that provides a new way of arranging anf thinking about the more textually embedded data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Data presentation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -Answers to research questions in words -Thematic analysis: divided into thematic sections
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    3. Lecture 8: Critical appraisal of research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Smart consumers of research

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Being intelligent consumers of research entails the ability to: -Read -Understnad and  -Interpret the usefulness of and apply published research to your personal and professional activities
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Professional practice: Evidence based

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Fove stesp for evidence  based practice: -Ask the burning question Collect the most relevant and best evidence -Critically appraise the evidence -integrate all evidence with ones clinical expertise and the patients preferences and values in making a practice decision or change -Evaluate the practice design or change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Critical appraisal or critique

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • -Systematically identifying the strengths are weaknesses of the research and -Forming judgements concerning its overall -quality (scientific merit) and  -applicability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          2. Peer review

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Frist screen of scientific merit.  Process: -Manuscript submitted to journal -Review by 2 experts in field (anonymous) -Reviewers write report on relevancy and rigour and make recommendations regarding whether it should be published -Editorial board accepts or rejects recomendation -Author makes changes in line with reviewers critiques and resubmit to same or different journal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Critical appraisal

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Requires both: -KNowledge of the content area and: -Technical knowledge of research methods and data analysis -Research theory and design -Data collection methods -Sampling methods -Research rigour
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Research methods

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Tailoring appraisal to research theory and strategy: -Traditionally different critique frameworks for : -Quantitative approaches and  -Qualitative approaches
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Framework

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Common framework for areas that can be assessed with the same questions (though answers will be much different) -Branching off into seperate appraisal framwork for areas that require different lines of inquiry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              2. Lecture 10: Qualitative methods
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Questionnaires

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Def: A type of written survey where respondants are asked a series of questions in a standard manner so that responses can be easily analysed -Quant: studiesd use highly standardised questions and pre coded responses to questions -Qual: studies use more open ended questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Interviews

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Def: Involve the collection of data through talking to respondants and recording their responses -Quan: Interviews are usually: -Highly structured questions and highly standardised response options "Reading the questionnaire" -Process of gethering specified information from subject -Qual: Interviews are usually: -Less structured (semi to unstructured) in terms of the questions that must be asked to how the questions are asked -In depth -Involve researcher prompting respondents to tell their story
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Interview guide

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Interview guide used in structured and semi structured interview go to guide used by the researcher to prompt the respondent: -To ensure that all relevant areas odf research question are covered -To provide flow and direction to the discussion -In addition to questions, the guide includes cues for the interviewer the types of replies that signal the interviewer to pursue different lines of questioning -Looks like a decision tree
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Observation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Systematic observation is a well established method in both the natural and social sciences -Systematic observation and recording of behaviours, actions activities and interactions -Offers opportunity to understand more that what people say about complex siturations -Quantitative studies emphasise: -Watching -Non participant observation -Qualitative studies use: -Watching and listening -Participant observation and non participant observation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Focus groups

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Def: In depth interview conducted with a group (10-15 people) -Unstructured or semi structured -To explore not only what people think but how and why people think the way about a health topic -Researcher uses question guide to stimulate and guide discussion, facilitator role -Group discussion is recorded via audio, video and written notes -Particularily helpful in research about cultural values and beliefs about health, illness and disease -Common in communication and media, market research and health promotion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Content or document analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Def: The systematic study of recorded human communication in all its forms...written, audio or visual images -Document becomes source or research: Study of the constructtion of communication -Good for answerin questions of: Who says what? To whom? Why? How? and with what effect?
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Meta-analysis

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • -Method that collects data from the results and/or raw data of other studies that have been done -Individual research studies are often small in scale and lack the ability to generalise to other or borader populations -By pooling results/data, one may be able to see patterns across many studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Question formats

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -Close ended questions: Question with pre coded response options, a set of fixed alternatives to choose from -Open ended questions: Question with no response option
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Close ended questions

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Advantages: -Easy for respondants to complete -Easy to process answers for data analysis -Answers may help clarify meaning of questions Disadvantages: -Missing an important and valuable reply
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Question styles: -Dichotomous -Likert scale -Guttman scale -Multiple choice (one response) -Multiple choice (Multiple resonses) -Rank order
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Open ended questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Why?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Question with no response options offered to respondant -Allow exploration of subjects views without forcing response options -Essential when range of replies are: -Unknown -Too cpomplex -Too numerous -Can improve quality of response, answer closer to truth
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • -Questions are not usually answerable through single word or phrase that can easily be pre coded -Usually used to explore: -Attitudes -Beliefs -Details of and reasons for behviours
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Advantages

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • -Can answer in own terms, all replies captured -Doesnt suggest answere, reveals more info about respondents level of knowledge and understanding -useful in exploring new areas -help to generate close ended questions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Disadvantages

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -Requires greater effort from respondent -Requires greatedf effort to process answers (code) for data analysis -Requoires skilled interview and coders to avoid distortion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    2. Sampling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. What is sampling?

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Sampling is the process of deciding what or who you will collect data from -It is impossible to ask everyone to participate in our research, even if we wanted to -Two main elelments of the sampling process involve: -Selecting who you will collect data from and -How many observations you will have -Many sampling approches avalibale, selection depends on the questions asked
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • Sampling decisions effect study rigour: -Quantitative: the extent to which your study's results can be generalised back to the main population (external validity) -Qualitative: The extent to which your study's findings can offer insights to other contexts (transferrability)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Limitations

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Limitations in transferrability and problems with external validity can arise due to: -People selection: The wrong or non-representative people into the study -Places selection: People from inapproriate locations to your research questions -Timing: Start your research at a time when other interventions or campaigns are running
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Types of sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Two main types of sampling methods are: -Probability or random sampling -Non-probability or non-random sampling Different research approaches use different types: -Quant: Probabiltiy -Qual: Non-probabiltiy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Probability sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • A process which units are selected randomly from the population to ensure that the probabililty of a unit being selected is known in advance -Means that the findings for the sample can be generalised to the larger population
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Non-pobability

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • A process in which units are not randomly selceted from the population and thus the probability of a unit being selected is not known in advance -Implies that some units in the population are more likely to be selected than others -Thus the findigns for the sample cannot be generalised to the larger ppulation but this is not the objective of qual research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Methods

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -NP sampling methods are techniques for seeking participants that respect the concept of trasferrability that involve meaningful and strategically: -Identifying your study participants and -determining the number of participants required 9(o set formula used)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  1. Aims

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Meaningful and strategically mean: -Research aims and questions are thoroughly addressed by who participants and how many -Flexibility and depth guides decisions Quality of information and understanding is pursued not quantity Researchers seek: -Who is avaliable? -Who has some specialised knowledge of this issue to be studied? Who is willing to participate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    1. Sample size

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • Considerations of sample size: -Scope of research -Nature of issue, amount of useful information gained from each participant -Data saturation -Not definatly known at begining of research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      1. Considerations

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • -Scope of research -Nature of issue -Amount of useful information gained from each participant -Data saturation: When no new information is being generated -Not definately know at begining of research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      2. Data saturation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • When no new information is being generated
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1. Methods

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Most common NP sampling methods are: -Purposive -Snowball -Convenience -Quota
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1. Purposive sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Involves the deliberate (or purposeful) selection of specific individuals (event, Setting) becasue: -of the cruicial infomration that they can provide -Whcih cannot be obtained as adequately through other means Benefits of purposive sampling lie in the resulting "information rich" participants for in depth studies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            1. Snowball sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • -A sub type or purposive sampling -The researcher: -initially selects a few research participants who fit specific criteria demanded by study aim and questions -then asks those participants to refer them to other potential participants that also may fot the specified criteria -Thus a snowball effect emerges -Often used in research with participants: -Who are difficult to locate -Unlikely to be willing to take part without refferal
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              1. Convenience sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • -Enables a researcher to access participants who are conveniently avalaible and willing to participate in the study -More general approach than purposive becasue it is not guided by conceptual or theoretical focus on characteristic of particiapnts -Used when it is difficult to find participants who meet some specific criteria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                1. Quota Sampling

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Annotations:

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • -Issue of representativeness is emphasized -Beings with a matrix or table describing the characteristics of the study population -Identify the proprotion of the population that have those characteristics Participants selected on basis or pre-specified characteristics so that total sample will have the characteristics believed to exist in the popyulation being studied -This technique is often used in market research

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