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Learning Topic - Psychology Revision

Learning = a relatively permanent change in behavior due to new experiences.

Key Study - Pavlov's Dogs

Aim: Investigated classical conditioning.

Method:

Presented food in a bowl to dogs until they salivated even when the food wasn't there.

Sounded a bell at the same time as giving them the food.

Results: After several times the dogs salivated to the sound of the bell.

Conclusion: The dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell to them getting food.

Evaluation:

Because it was a controlled environment that was very specific, the dogs may not behave the same in different environments.

The behavior of dogs cannot easily be applied to humans.

Extinction = if one factor is repeatedly presented without the other, the response decreases and the association is forgotten.

Spontaneous recovery = if after a delay the conditioned stimulus is presented again, the conditioned response often reappears.

Generalisation = this occurs when the response is triggered because of similar looking objects/sounds etc.

Discrimination = this occurs when the response is only triggered with a specific object/sound.

Key Study - Little Albert

Aim: To see if a person could develop a phobia through the principles of classical conditioning.

Method:

10 month old Albert was allowed to play with a white rat.

A metal bar was banged loudly near him while he played with the rat. This caused Albert to jump and to develop a fear response.

This was repeated.

Results: The researcher allowed Albert to play with the rat again but he wouldn't because he was scared.

Conclusion: Albert learned to associate the loud noise and his fear response with the rat. His fear was later generalised to other white objects.

Evaluation:

Raises ethical concerns because Albert was not protected from emotional/mental harm.

The environment lacked ecological validity.

Key Study - Thorndike

Aim: Investigated the effect of consequences on learned behavior in animals.

Method:

Noticed a hungry cat could learn to open a latch to escape the cage and eat the fish outside.

The cat sometimes accidentally knocked the latch with its tail but was returned to the cage.

Results: Each time the cat was returned to the cage, there was less time before it opened the latch and got out again.

Conclusion: Cat learned to associate moving the latch with getting food (pleasant consquence).

Evaluation:

The behavior of animals cannot be easily applied to humans.

Summary of operant conditioning:

Positive reinforcement: Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior because the consequence is pleasant.

Example: A child is praised or rewarded for good work in a classroom. The child then wants this to happen again so they repeat the behavior.

Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because the consequence is stopping something unpleasant and the person is still being rewarded.

Example: A child's parent does not allow them to stay up and watch something on TV. The child then throws a tantrum and the parent gives in and lets them stay up. (Negative reinforcement generally encourages bad behavior because the person is still being rewarded for it.)

Punishment: Punishment weakens behavior because the consequence is something unpleasant.

Example: A child is behaving badly while out. The child is shouted at by a parent and they calm down.

Systematic Desensitisation:

The phobic and the psychologist create a hierachy of the situations the phobic fears the most.

The phobic is taught relaxation techniques.

The phobic and the psychologist work their way through the different stages of fear until the person feels comfortable in all situations.

If the phobic does not feel comfortable, they redo the previous stage until they do

Advantages: SD is good at treating specific phobias. SD is more suitable for treating children.

Disadvantages: SD is bad at treating more general phobias. May take a long time and can be expensive depending on the person/phobia.

Flooding:

Phobic is exposed to their most feared situation straight away and they experience an intense fear reaction.

The situation is maintained because the phobic cannot escape. They may experience intense mental/physical distress.

The response is eventually exhausted because the body cannot maintain the fear response any longer. The phobia is extinguished.

Advantages: Quick and cheap. Evidence suggests this is the most successful technique.

Disadvantages: Raises ethical concerns because the phobic is forced to remain in the feared situation. Not good for treating children.

Aversion Therapy:

(Example of treating alcoholism)

Alcoholic is given a drug which will make them violently ill if they consume alcohol.

Patient is given a drink of alcohol and is sick.

This is repeated until the alcoholic associated the sickness with drinking alcohol.

Advantages: Very effective for certain people.

Disadvantages: If the pairing of the alcohol and the drug is not repeated occasionally, the association is forgotten. Ethical concerns arise because of the effects on the patient.

Token economy:

Desired behavior is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for something the individual wants.

Advantages: Very effective for managing patients and young children.

Disadvantages: Behaving well and being rewarded must be something the individual is interested in otherwise they won't bother.

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