Methods in sociology

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Methods in sociology

2 Groups:

- Positivists: like science, fact and statistics (quantitative data)

- Interpretivists: Not science; social construction (qualitative data)

2 types of data

- primary data: information collected themselves for own purposes. used to gain 1st hand picture of a group. e.g. questionnaires, interviews, observations,etc. Advantages are it gathers precise information needed to test theory/hypotheses. Disadvantages are it is costly.

-secondary data: information collected or created by someone else for own purpose, but can be used. E.g. statistics, internet, documents, etc. Advantages are it is quick and cheap. Disadvantages are it may not have the same focus.

Quantitative Data: information in a numerical form e.g. statistics, opinion polls, etc.

Qualitative Data: in depth information

2 types of groups in experiments:

-experimental group: one V altered to affect another V

IV- variable changed, DV- variable changed

-control group: no manipulation of IV, allows us to measure cause & effect when compared with experimental

Choice of topic: sociologists need to decide topic they wish to study

-theoretical perspective: major influence

-society's values: sociologists are part of the society the study therefore infleunced by its values. Focus on research changes with values.

-funding bodies: funding from external bodies (government agencies, charitable organisations and buisnesses) determines topics of choice.

-practical factors: inaccessibility of certain situations may restrict.

STRUGGLE TO GET INFORMED CONSENT OFF CHILDREN.

PET Analysis:

Practical:

-time and money- diff methods require diff amounts

-requirement of the funding body- those who'll fund will want certain things.

-personal skills & characteristics- this effects their ability

-subject matter- may be harder and therefore require certain experience

-research opportunities- may come suddenly and require you to not prepare e.g. 9/11

Ethical:

-informed consent-know what's about to happen.

-confidentiality- information should be kept private= not cause future problems

-effects on research P's- avoid police intervention, harm to employment, psychological, etc.

-vulnerable groups- special care should be taken (age, disability, etc.)

-covert research (undercover)

Theoretical:

-validity- producing true/genuine picture of what something like

-reliability- can it be replicated?

-representative of whole society?

-methodological perspectives-positivists and interprevists.

Researching Education

Each brings with it certain problems and opportunities for the sociologist in choosing a suitable method to use.

researching pupils

3 major diff when studying young people and adults: power and status, ability, and vulnerability & ethical issues. children have less power and status than adults, therefore it is harder for them to challenge adult opinions which is further reinforced by the school hierarchy. therefore we have to consider ways in which the can overcome the power differences between adult researchers and young p's. Pupils' vocabulary, powers of self expression, thinking skills and confidence are likely to be more limited than those of adults. abstract concepts are a central part of sociological investigation, poses problems for researchers. Limitations in pupils understanding also make it more difficult to gain informed consent. young people are often more vulnerable to physical and psychological harm than adults. most research guidelines emphasise that the young person too should be aware of what the research entails. Child protection issues are very important. researcher should consider any forms of stress that the P may take. Participation of young people is necessary must be considered and whether they stand to benefit from it.

researching teachers

Power relationships in the school are not equal. They also have legal responsibilities and a duty of care towards the young people they teach. Teachers often see it as 'my classroom' in which the researcher may be viewed as a trespasser. Head, governors, parents and pupils all constrain what teachers do. teachers are often overworked and may be less than fully cooperative, even when they want to be helpful. this may mean interviews and questionnaires need to be kept short and this may restrict the amount of data that can be gathered. teachers are used to be inspected and scrutinised so will 'put on a show'.

Researching classrooms

usual in being a closed, highly controlled social setting, it has clear boundaries and restrictions on access and behaviour. the teacher and school control time, behaviour, noise, dress, language, and the layout of the classroom. young people rarely experience such control any where else. In classroom interactions teachers and pupils are very experienced in disguising their real thoughts and feelings from one another so they may conceal it from the researchers. young people may also be more subject to peer pressure and the need to conform, and this may affect the way they respond to being researched.

researching schools

researchers may come to be seen as part of the hierarchy (students may see them as teachers and teachers may see them as inspectors). headteachers also have a great deal of power, including the power to refuse the researcher access to the school. Roland Meighan (1981) found that heads sometimes viewed research negatively reactions included "it is dangerous to involve pupils in commenting on their teachers", "discipline would be adversely affected", "it would be bad for classroom relationships", and "children are not competent to judge teachers". Schools opperate under a particular legal frame work. some situations and school settings may be off limits to a researcher such as if they dont have control of the classroom. education is under close scrutiny by the media, parents, and politicians. this includes exam results and league tables, figures of truancy, subject choice, ofsted reports, government inquiries and school policy documents. sociologists may be able to use all these secondary sources in their research. however school records are confidential and researchers may be unable to gain access. Many schools are singlesex which may pose problems such as where the researcher is the opposite sex to them. schools operate to a daily and yearly timetable.

Researching parents

parents may infleunce what goes on in education, both by the way they bring up their children and by their involvement in school through parent-teacher contacts, parent governers, attendance at parents' evenings and so on. marketisation policies also encourage parents to see themselves as consumers, for example in choice of school.. Unlike most other groups, parents are unusual in that they are for the most part physically outside the school. The social class and ethnicity of parents play a very important role within schooling. some parents may be willing to participate in research.

Experiments

Labratory: the process of manipulating 1 variable (IV) to measure another (DV): HIGHLY RELIABLE, CANT CONTROL ALL V'S., CANT BE USED TO STUDY THE PAST,BAD GENERALISATION;SMALL SAMPLES. HAWTHORNE EFFECT, NOT APPROPRIATE METHOD FOR FREE WILl

Field: natural environment,not aware being studied.

The comparative method: 'thought experiment'

Social Surveys

2 basic forms: written questionnaries and interviews use both open and closed ended Q's.

Questionnaires

A list of written questions.QUICK, CHEAP, NO NEED TO TRAIN, EASY TO QUANTIFY, RELIABLE IF REPEATED, CAN COMPARATIVE WITH TIME AND SOCIETIES, CAN TEST HYPOTHESES, POSITIVISTS FAVOUR; DETACHED, REPRESENTATIVE, FEW ETHICAL ISSUES, DATA= LIMITED AND SUPERFICIAL, NEED INCENTIVES (ADDS COSTS) IF POSTAL DONT KNOW IF RIGHT PERSON HAS ANSWERED IT. LOW RESPONSE RATE, INFLEXIBLE, SNAPSHOT, DETACHMENT DOESNT ALLOW EXPLANATION, PEOPLE CAN LIE, IMPOSE RESEARCHERS OWN MEANING.

Interviews

Structured- STRAIGHTFORWARD, GENERALISABLE, EASILY QUANTIFIED, REASONABLY GOOD RESPONSE RATE, RELIABLE,LOW VALIDITY, INFLEXIB LE, FEMINISTS SAY THEY ARE PATRIACHAL.

Unstructured- ALLOWS A RAPPORT, ALLOWS INTERVIEWEES VIEW, CHECKS UNDERSTANDING, FLEXIBLE, EXPLORES UNFAMILER TOPICS, TIME CONSUMING, TRAINING NEEDED, NEED GOOD INTERPERSONAL SKILLS, UNREPRESENTATIVE, NOT RELIABLE, CANT BE EASILY QUANTIFIED, NOT VALID-SUSCEPTIBLE TO PROBLEMS.

CAN HAVE INTERVIEWER BIAS, ARFICIAL, STATUS & POWER INEQUALITES, CULTURAL DIFFERENCE, THE SOCIAL DESIRABILITY EFFECT, ETHICAL ISSUES.

Participant observation

involved with the group (non participant is opposite) RISK OF GOING NATIVE,MAY STRUGGLE TO GAIN ENTRY, LEAVING A GROUP COULD BE DIFFICULT.

Overt observation- open AVOID ETHICAL PROBLEMS, ALLOWS NAIVE Q'S, CAN TAKE NOTES OPENLY, GROUP MAY REFUSE PERMISSION, HAWTHORNE EFFECT

Covert Observation- unknown REDUCES RISK OF ALTERING BEHAVIOUR, NATURAL, NEED TO KEEP UP ACT (COULD BE DANGEROUS IF CAUGHT), CANT TAKE NOTES OPENLY, CANT ASK NAIVE QUESTIONS, REDUCES RISK OF HAWTHORNE EFFECT, IMMORAL TO DECIEVE.

GOOD VALIDITY; SEE WHAT PEOPLE DO, PROVIDES INSIGHT, FLEXIBLE, ONLY METHOD SOMETIMES, RAPPORT, TIME CONSUMING, TRAINING REQUIRED, STRESSFUL, REQUIRES SKILLS, MANY GROUPS MAY WISH TO NOT BE STUDIED, IMMORAL, LOW REPRESENTATIVENESS, LOW RELIABILITY, BIAS, LOW VALIDITY; INTERPRETATIONS OF RESEARCHER, LACK OF STRUCTURE

Secondary sources

official stats and documents.

Official statistics: gathered by govt. or other official bodies. FREE SOURCES OF INFO, ALLOWS COMPARISON, COLLECTED REGULARLY, MAY NOT BE ANY AVAILIBLE ON SUCH A TOPIC, DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS, QUITE REPRESENTATIVE, RELIABLE, SOME VALID SOME NOT

Documents- written text, can be public or personal MIGHT NOT BE WHAT CLAIMS TO BE, MIGHT NOT BE BELIEVABLE, MAY NOT BE REPRESENTATIVE, DIFFERENT MEANINGS. GET CLOSE TO REALITY, ONLY SOURCE AVAILIBLE, CHEAP

Other types of research

case studies, longitudinal, life histories

triangulation

combination of methods