Activities

Page 1

Cesare Beccaria - 21/09/2021

Using reliable academic sources:

Make notes about the 2 perspectives (Classical School and Beccaria’s Theory)

Identify at least one impact the two perspectives have had on criminology

Identify at least one criticism of each perspective.

Record the sources and a summary of the information in your own words. This should be recorded in the journal.

The Classical School was influenced by Beccaria's 'Essay on Crimes and Punishment' (1764). A key concept within the Classical School is free will, therefore, they think that punishment is the best way to stop individuals from committing crimes (Pelfrey, 1980). This school believed that everyone was rational, another key concept of theirs, and that due to social contracts, the government should be there to help the people (Williams and McShane, 2010; Valasik, 2013). The social contract is that the citizens cede a small amount of their freedom, in exchange for the government protecting them.

It was also influenced by Utilitarian philosopher, Jeremy Bentham and his concept of hedonism, people will make rational decisions that gain them pleasure and avoid pain (Williams and McShane, 2010; Valasik, 2013).. This led to the idea that punishment would stop people from committing crime, as it would go against humanity's natural hedonism.

It has impacted criminology as one of it's key ideas was that citizens had rights and the government should protect those rights (Williams and McShane, 2010). That concept is still relevant today, as many still agree with that concept.

One criticism of this perspective is that not every decision people make is rational, especially when it comes to crimes. Many times the people committing crimes are not thinking about the possible consequences of their actions and are instead acting on emotions.

Cesare Beccaria influenced the creation of the Classical School through his 1964 'Essay on Crime and Punishment' (Williams and McShane, 2010; Valasik, 2013). His essay explored the ideas of free will and social contracts by applying them to crime and justice, his main focus being on the legal system and how it should be changed. His ideas included having a jury, separating the people who make the laws from those who judge the trials, and making sure the punishment was equivalent to the crime committed.

mention how he thinks crime should be punished (Social harm) - making people aware of the consequences

Beccaria thought that crime should be punished by the level of social harm caused by the crime. He also believed that everyone should be aware of the consequences of crimes to discourage others from committing crimes.

It has impacted criminology as our current legal system is still based off of Beccaria's concepts and ideas (Williams and McShane, 2010). Therefore, showing that his ideas are still relevant even hundreds of years later.

One criticism of this perspective is that it is hard to judge the social harm done to a person/people like Beccaria suggests. For example, if Person A murdered Person B, who had no one who would be impacted by his death, then the social harm caused is limited. However, if Person C stole from a family of five, the social harm would be much more, as more people were impacted. Does Person C deserve a harsher punishment than Person A? Should a murderer really get a lesser sentence just because they only hurt one person?

Reference List

Pelfrey, W.V. (1980). Evolution of Criminology. [online] Cincinnati: Anderson Publications. Available at: https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/evolution-criminology [Accessed 21 Sep. 2021].

Williams, F.P. and McShane, M.D. (2010). Criminology Theory: Selected Classic Readings. [online] London: Routledge. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iNyqiTR8QvIC&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=criminology+classical+school&ots=it0JnQ8jYA&sig=ZYonrQlWP0c15dNKVDcWLAUIYvo#v=onepage&q=criminology%20classical%20school&f=false [Accessed 21 Sep. 2021].

Valasik, M. (2013). Classical Criminology. In: The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, 1st ed. [online] New York, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/11083694/Classical_Criminology?auto=citations&from=cover_page [Accessed 21 Sep. 2021].

Page 2

Biological Explanation: Against - 23/09/2021

In groups - either for or against.

"Criminality can clearly be explained from a biological perspective."

Against

Criminality needs to take into account other factors, and not just biology. For example, it needs to take into account a person's location, and also their upbringing.

One piece of evidence against the biological perspective is that there seems to be a strong connection between childhood abuse and their potential to commit crimes. The results of a study even show that a larger amount of abuse correlated with a larger amount of criminal activity (Smith and Thornberry, 1995).

Another piece of evidence shows that behavioural issues are actually the most reliable way to predict future delinquents. White et al. (1990) correctly predicted 81% of participants at age 11 as antisocial, or not, and 66% of aged 15 year olds as delinquents, or not. They predicted these results through the characteristics that the children displayed.

Another piece of evidence shows that the location of a person has an impact on if they commit crime or not. Weisburd et al (?) concluded that crime can be predicted, and potentially prevented, thanks to "crime hot spots" (Weisburd et al., ?., p.5), these are areas where crime happens very often. Therefore, making crime locations more predictable and creating a need to study why crime is happening there specifically.

References

Smith, C., & Thornberry, T.P. (1995). THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHILDHOOD MALTREATMENT AND ADOLESCENT INVOLVEMENT IN DELINQUENCY. Criminology, [online] 33(4), pp.451-481. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1995.tb01186.x [Accessed: 23 September 2021].

Weisburd, D., Groff, E.R. and Yang, S.-M. (2012). The Criminology of Place : Street Segments and Our Understanding of the Crime Problem. [online] Oxford: Oxford University Press. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ROZoAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=criminology+and+living+place&ots=OkuB3xsHQT&sig=-k7qVd3HZcbJnYaJH9TVcV5Rwc4&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=criminology%20and%20living%20place&f=false [Accessed: 23 September 2021].

White, J.L., Moffitt, T.E., Earls, F., Robins, L. and Silva, P.A. (1990). HOW EARLY CAN WE TELL?: PREDICTORS OF CHILDHOOD CONDUCT DISORDER AND ADOLESCENT DELINQUENCY. Criminology, [online] 28(4), pp.507–535. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1990.tb01337.x [Accessed: 23 September 2021].

Page 3

Cesare Lombroso: Video - 23/09/2021

CriminologyWeb (2019). Cesare Lombroso: Theory of Crime, Criminal Man and Atavism. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjyDQdv6gSk [Accessed 23 Sep. 2021].

Notes:

born - 1835, Verona, Italy

died - 1909

very biological and scientific

"Criminal Man" (1876)

criminal pathology

born criminals have physical (and mental) differences that make them commit crimes, atavistic characteristics

product of evolutionary throwback, inferior

directly studied offenders, 1000s of people altogether

studied living and dead

"special type of human being" - the atavistic characteristics

even criminals have different characteristics from each other, he thought that could be used to categorise them

later - took into account gangs, poverty, and alcohol, also took into account some psychological aspects, lack of feelings of remorse, cynical, and impulsiveness

'father of modern criminology' and 'founder of positivist school'

Italian School of Criminology

didn't agree with free will, external factors instead - time of Darwin's theory and sociology

fit in with his time, significant influence

criticisms

not interpreted correctly

not examined critically

not accurate and don't support his theory of atavism - lead to abandonment of this (most people)

but brain chemistry and pathways are still examined today as they seem to have an impact

Page 4

Cesare Lombroso - 23/09/2021

The Positivist School was started in the 19th century as a rival perspective to the Classical School (Williams and McShane, 2010). Rather than looking at the justice system and the punishments for crimes, the Positivist School focused on why some people were criminals, and why some people were not. Many began to focus on the idea of someone being born a criminal, that criminality was to do with biology and genetics, rather than a person's free will. For example, they believed there was a connection between someone's skull and brain characteristics, and their criminal behaviour. This idea was developed by Cesare Lombroso, a man known as "the father of modern criminology", due to the significant impact his views had on society's approach and view of criminals (Williams and McShane, 2010, p.145).

Lombroso's most famous work is the 'Criminal Man' (1876), which focused on studying crime in a much more objective and scientific way (Williams and McShane, 2010). However, his findings, while impactful in the 19th century, have been mostly abandoned in recent years due to his debatable methodology and conclusions.

Lombroso's key concept is atavistic characteristics (CriminologyWeb, 2019). These are visual, and mental, characteristics of an individual that Lombroso believed would indicate if a person was, or was going to be, a criminal. He believed that those with atavistic characteristics were evolutionary throwbacks, and were inferior to everyone else.

Lombroso has impacted criminology as later in life, he moved away from placing the blame solely on biology, and acknowledged that other factors have an impact (Williams and McShane, 2010). For example, climate, education, and religion. Therefore, bringing in aspects of psychology, biology and sociology into criminology, aspects which are commonly explored in recent years.

One criticism of the Positivist perspective is that it is a deterministic approach and takes away the idea of free will, as it is based on the idea that certain people are born to be criminals (Williams and McShane, 2010).

Reference List

CriminologyWeb (2019). Cesare Lombroso: Theory of Crime, Criminal Man and Atavism. YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjyDQdv6gSk [Accessed: 23 September 2021].

Williams, F.P. and McShane, M.D. (2010). Criminology Theory: Selected Classic Readings. [online] London: Routledge. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iNyqiTR8QvIC&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=criminology+classical+school&ots=it0JnQ8jYA&sig=ZYonrQlWP0c15dNKVDcWLAUIYvo#v=onepage&q=criminology%20classical%20school&f=false [Accessed :21 September 2021]

Page 5

Jeremy Bentham and Michel Foucault - 30/09/2021

Jeremy Bentham created the concept of panopticons (Foucault, 1977). These are circular prisons in which the cells are placed against the outer wall of the circle, with a guard tower in the centre. The guards would be able to see into every cell, but the prisoners would not be able to see out, and therefore, would not know when they were being observed. This concept could even be applied to other buildings, not just prisons. For example, a hospital or a school. This idea automatically makes the balance of power obvious and unchangeable as no one would be able to make any move against the people surveilling them due to constant visibility.

He impacted criminology as he influenced Michel Foucault. Foucault is a well-known name in the criminology world, because of his research on criminals, prisons, and the state.

Michel Foucault's main work was 'Discipline and Punish' (1975), which focused on exploring the history and structure of prisons (Oliver, 2010). He pointed out that pre-nineteenth century, punishment was violent and more for the public's amusement than preventing or punishing crime. One of the reasons that the punishment was such a spectacle was because crime was seen as being against the monarch. Therefore, giving an excuse for such harsh and demonstrative punishments. However, these spectacles led to public unrest in the working class as people were being killed for stealing food they needed to survive. Foucault pointed out that in the late eighteenth century the system began to morph from being focused on violence and murder to being focused on the imprisonment and psychological abuse of criminals. Foucault also points out that the more technologically advanced a civilisation, the easier it is for it to control and observe its criminals.

One of Foucault's main concepts was panopticism, which he adapted from Jeremy Bentham (Foucault, 1977). Foucault compares the surveillance of prisoners to the plague and how people coped with that. Specifically, how everybody was kept under watch and had to follow the rules of the state. Otherwise, the person would have been killed. He also mentions how the keys to people's houses were kept by one person, like how the keys to cells are kept by prison guards.

mention how the idea of the panopticon and surveillance has moved beyond prisons

The idea of the panopticon and surveillance has moved beyond prisons in modern times.

He impacted criminology as his theories on surveillance its impact on criminals is still relevant today. That is because the effectiveness of the prison system is constantly being debated. Especially considering the technological advancements of the 21st century. It brings into question how much surveillance is too much? Is there ever too much when it comes to keeping people safe? When does it begin to infringe on people's freedom?

One criticism of Foucault is that his ideas of prison are incorrect (Alford, 2000). Foucault only every visited American prisons, and his work does not seem to make distinctions between the different prison systems and refers to them all as one. Alford points out that Foucault is writing purely from a theoretical standpoint, not a practical one.

Reference List

Alford, C.F. (2000). 'What Would It Matter If Everything Foucault Said about Prison Were Wrong? "Discipline and Punish" after Twenty Years.' Theory and Society. [online], 29(1), p.125-146. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3108481 [Accessed: 5 October 2021].

Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. [online] Translated by A. Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books. Available at: https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/57894823/disciplineandpunish-1-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1633452299&Signature=EnhNbVcSgrFag~CBy2bRR4ADjZFwkSyz4j0lkYdWzmkhw2ul2gGxoozacp-ReAz~9Kc5nVU9hvida16KEc9fqYEzjRFm92lChQTM~x0tRqjYHrDXN~hTCh7X9XzoEk2tohQKDQ42K9OThxk7FV74X9O2kQMw2bXA-HP-A1u-pupeUoPrl0NE2spVcpTgzLqVbKb2-m~gdgbk351ciKNb3IX3PRzcSj3AOawqnGit1YKbEAT8P2gO4U2hf8tujLlZVSUWJ4jHw0ncZfgEeUBlmvhQpEP~hTWDeb8lony6wn7CmJDrI9DD3aE3rDFnZEZqglrMpsIU59TYYtFPtIDANA__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA [Accessed: 5 October 2021].

Oliver, P. (2010). Foucault - The Key ideas. [online] London: Hodder Education. Available at: https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=350793&site=eds-live&authtype=sso&custid=s2173719 [Accessed: 30 September 2021].

Page 6

Emile Durkheim - 27/10/2021

Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist and is commonly called the 'father of sociology' (Smith, 2008).

One of Durkheim's key texts is 'The Division of Labor in Society' (1893). This text explores morality, modernity, and social disorder (Smith, 2008). Durkheim believed that there was an overarching moral compass of society known as the collective conscience. The collective conscience of a society is impacted by its industrialisation level. Rural societies preferred everyone to be similar, whereas industrial societies seem to encourage uniqueness. Therefore, he believed that the laws of a society, created around a societies beliefs and morality, reflect their social order and status. He believed that crime was normal and necessary for a society to function as it creates change and encourages the divide between morally good and morally bad actions (Smith and Bohm, 2008).

Another of Durkheim's key texts is 'Suicide: A Study in Sociology' (1897). In this text, he explores the rates of suicide in various social classes and defines different types of suicides (Pope, 1976). He defines the types of suicide by investigating their position in society in reference to integration and regulation. The four types of suicide, according to Durkheim, are egoistic, anomic, altruistic, and fatalistic.

One of Durkheim's key concepts is anomie. Anomie is a state of normlessness where the laws of a society are not regulated enough. That occurs when a society is changing from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. Durkheim believed that anomie, and therefore decreased regulation, leads to an increase in crime, especially suicides (Smith and Bohm, 2008). Therefore, he believed that society needs laws to keep society stable.

Mechanical solidarity is mainly seen in more rural societies, where similarity is key within the citizens (Pope and Johnson, 1983).

Organic solidarity is mainly seen in more industrial and modern societies, where people rely on others to live their day-to-day life, through the division of labour (Pope and Johnson, 1983). Everyone is interconnected and has a role to play within society to help themselves and others.

He impacted criminology as he inspired the functionalist perspective of criminology (Pelfrey, 1980). That is a major perspective of criminology that is still used today.

One criticism of Durkheim is that his work can be very abstract, and his later pieces contradict his earlier texts (Smith, 2008). That has led to many people disagreeing about what his key concepts and ideas are.

Reference List

Pelfrey, W.V. (1980). Evolution of Criminology. [online] Cincinnati: Anderson Publications. Available at: https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/evolution-criminology [Accessed: 27 October 2021].

Pope, W. (1976). DURKHEIM’S “SUICIDE” - A CLASSIC ANALYZED. [online] United States: University of Chicago Press. Available at: https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/durkheims-suicide-classic-analyzed [Accessed: 28 October 2021].

Pope, W. and Johnson, B.D. (1983). 'Inside Organic Solidarity'. American Sociological Review, [online] 48(5), pp.681-692. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2094927 [Accessed: 28 October 2021].

Smith, P. (2008). 'Durkheim and Criminology: Reconstructing the Legacy.' Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, [online] 41(3), pp.333–344. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1375/acri.41.3.333 [Accessed: 27 October 2021].

Smith, H.P., and Bohm, R.M. (2008). 'Beyond Anomie: Alienation and Crime'. Critical Criminology, [online] 16(1), pp.1-15. Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10612-007-9047-z [Accessed: 28 October 2021].

Page 7

Durkheim Activities - 27/10/2021

Activity 1

A society with no crime would be abnormal

Crime is a social good

Society needs crime

How do you feel about these statements?

I think they are correct, I don't think there could be a society without crime just due to human nature/individuals.

Activity 2

Durkheim suggests the following:

A society with no crime would be abnormal

Crime is a social good

Society needs crime

Explain these ideas from Durkheim’s perspective

Durkheim believed that crime was necessary for society as it creates a punishment for morally bad behaviour but also encourages morally good behaviour (as those behaviours are not punished). He also believes that crime keeps a society from being stagnant and therefore, helps to keep it alive.

Activity 3

READ: https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/prostitution-sociological-studies

Are any of the following functional? Explain your reasons for each one:

Drug taking

i'm not sure about this one - seeing it could be a deterrent

Rioting

it could show that people are not happy with how things are being run and encourage others to speak out about their opinion, but it could also encourage people to not do anything as they could be against rioting (depending on the purpose of the riot and what the rioters did)

Public Punishment – putting people in the stocks or publishing their punishment in newspapers

this could be functional as it helps maintain laws as people would see the consequences and therefore be encouraged to follow the law so that public punishment didn't happen to them

Being drunk and disorderly in public places

this could also be functional for the same reason, others would see the disorderly person and be discouraged from drinking in public so that they do not behave the same way

benefit of these crimes - create jobs (law enforcement and courts)

Page 8

Crime Causation: Genetics - 11/11/2021

Pick a study from each of the 3 areas – you don’t have to pick listed ones.

Find a suitable source and provide a brief description about each one along with an evaluation that considers its merits and its issues

Upload your work to the journal

Area 1: Family Studies;

Dugdale’s study and the Jukes

Goring undertook studies on families

Cambridge Study sample 397 families

Area 2: Twin Studies;

MZ/DZ twins – concordance rates

Langes study 1929

Christiansen 1968/1974 - 6000 pairs between 1881-1910, penal register

Dalgaard and Kringlen – 139 Norwegian male twins high MZ correlation

Christiansen, K.O. (1970). 'Crime in a Danish Twin Population.' Twin Research and Human Genetics. [online] 19(1), pp. 323-326. Available at: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/amg-acta-geneticae-medicae-et-gemellologiae-twin-research/article/crime-in-a-danish-twin-population/18CC7869BC1D941077BC757B2EA78D5E#article [Accessed: 11 November 2021].

In relation to crime, identical twins behave in similar ways, whereas fraternal twins behave in quite different ways, therefore, showing that genetics have a significant impact in criminal behaviour (Lange, 1929, within Christiansen, 1970).

One piece of research, completed by Harvald and Hauge (1965) in conjunction with the Danish Twin Register, investigated almost 6000 sets of twins born between 1881 and 1910 (Christiansen, 1970). Just under one thousand of those were registered criminals. The study found that the average concordance rate of both twins committing crimes was 66.7% for identical twins, and 30.4% for fraternal twins according to previous research. The concordance rate from this research for identical twin boys was 35.8% and identical twin girls was 21.4%. The concordance rate for fraternal twin boys was 12.3%, 4.3% for fraternal twin girls, and 3.5% for fraternal twins featuring both a boy and a girl.

One strength of this study is that it covers all sets of twins born between the times, not just a select amount of those who were criminals and those who were not. Therefore, the results are more accurate and reliable as the sampling included everybody. The amount of twin sets being investigated, 6000, also give credence to the results being generalisable and accurate.

Area 3: Adoption Studies;

Biological correlation of criminality separated social environment.

Hutchings and Mednick 1977 – Copenhagen adoptee study

Men significant findings

Page 9

Crime Causation: Personality - 18/11/2021

Activity 1:

Eysenck’s perspective

Define Extroversion, Introversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism

extroversion - An individual who is more likely to express their thoughts and feelings to other people (APA, 2021). Personality traits linked to extroverts are sociable, expressive, and outgoing.

introversion - An individual who is more likely to keep thoughts and feelings private (APA, 2021). Personality traits linked to introverts are withdrawn, reserved, and quiet.

neuroticism - This is part of Eysenck's personality explanation (APA, 2021). Traits linked to it are emotional instability and psychological distress. Neurosis covers a variety of mental health disorders that include anxiety or emotional symptoms, like paranoia, obsession and dissociation.

psychoticism - This is part of Eysenck's personality explanation (APA, 2021). Traits linked to it are aggression, impulsiveness, and anti-social behaviour. These personality traits create an increased risk of psychotic disorders. Psychosis is a state where an individual has issues with reality, including delusions and hallucinations.

APA (2021). Dictionary. APA. Available at: https://dictionary.apa.org/ [Accessed: 18 November 2021].

Explain which characteristics explain/linked to criminal behaviour

Explain which groupings are more dominant in criminal behaviour

Activity 2:

McGurk and McDougall (1981) provided support

Find this study and make notes about what was found in relation to Eysenck’s explanation

Identify at least one other study/evidence /idea that provides a critical evaluation of Eysenck’s explanation, i.e. consider how well his theory works and where it falls down

Activity 3:

What is your critical evaluation of Eysenck’s personality outline and its use in explaining crime?

Post your responses in your journal.

One strength of Eysenck's personality outline is that it is very complex and develops over time in order to explain crime. His first experiment in 1951 found that neuroticism is genetically inherited and thought that exploring the extrovert and introverted personality traits was enough. However, he found that there could still be major differences in personalities, even if people had similar extrovert/introvert levels. Eysenck then created the neuroticism scale, where he investigated the emotional stability of a person. In the 1970s he added psychoticism, which investigated an individual's impulse control. These developments caused a better explanation of crime as they were more detailed and exact. He found that extroverts were difficult to condition, so they reacted to antisocial impulses differently than introverts would. He also found that those who had high neuroticism were likely to be unstable, and those with high psychoticism were likely to be aggressive, cold and impersonal.

Another strength is that it takes into account the socialisation process and genetic influences. It recognises that some personality characteristics are influenced by the people around us while we grow. While others are biological, and therefore, innate.

However, issues have been found with the psychoticism (P) scale (Goh, King and King, 1982). Goh, King and King (1982) found that those with higher P scores were not always psychotic, especially in the clinical sense. The results seem to be inconsistent, which brings into question how valid the P scale is. That could mean that psychoticism is something that is unable to be investigated in this method, or perhaps it just needs some adjustments to the definition/how it is investigated. Goh, King and King are not the only people to question the reliability of the P scale. Bishop (1977) and Block (1977) also commented about its lack of validity and usefulness.

Reference List

Bishop, D.V. (1977). 'The P scale and psychosis'. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. [online] 86(2), pp127-134. Available at: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1978-30744-001 [Accessed: 23 November 2021].

Block, J. (1977). 'P scale and psychosis: Continued concerns'. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. [online] 86(4), pp.431-434. Available at: https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1978-30744-001 [Accessed: 23 November 2021].

Goh, D.S., King, D.W., and King, L.A. (1982). 'Psychometric Evaluation of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire'. Educational and Psychological Measurement. [online] 42(1), pp.297-309. Available at: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0013164482421036 [Accessed: 18 November 2021].

Page 10

Crime Causation: Social/Environmental - 25/11/2021

Activity 1:

Analyse the theory

Identify at least 4 aspects of the theory to critically analyse

Critically analyse these points

Use at least 2 reliable sources to do this

Upload your responses in your journal.

Activity 2:

Research Sutherland’s Differential Association

Create a 3-4 slides PowerPoint to explain the following:

Reason for development of theory

Theoretical explanation

Explanation of terms and concepts

Role of frequency, intensity, duration and priority

Example of the theory in action

Critical analysis of the theory

Upload to Journal

Activity 3:

Read further about the comparison between Merton & Durkheim’s perspectives

Elaborate Merton’s explanation of strain theory

Read further about the ideas and theories generated by the Chicago School in relation to criminology

Be critical and analytical in all your reading and make notes about the points you make

Keep a record of the sources used