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Flashcards

Physiology term 2 flashcards

J000D97 Uni Year 1 Inglês 165 flashcards

Flashcards do conjunto (165)

  1. 14 things the CVD system transportsCO2
    Os
    Heat
    Hormones
  2. 2PlasmaFluid in which cells and platelets = suspended containing solutes and proteins.
  3. 3What are the 2 branches of the CV system?Pulmonary and systemic
  4. 4Does slow depolarisation to the threshold take place in pacemaker or contractile cardiac cells? And what is it caused by?Pacemaker
    Influx of Na
  5. 5What ion causes the rising phase of the AP in a SA node cell?Ca2+
  6. 6Refractory periodThe time following an AP during which normal stimulation cannot trigger a second AP.
  7. 7What is the RMP of a cardiac contractile cell?-90mV
  8. 8Force generated by cardiac muscle is proportional toNumber of active cross bridges.
  9. 9What is the diacrotic notch caused by?The SL valves closing at the start of diastole and backflow of blood pushing against them when the pressure drops in the ventricles.
  10. 10Blood P = (formula)SP / DP
  11. 11Pulse pressure = (formula)SP - DP
  12. 12MAP = (formula)DP + (SP-DP)/3
  13. 13EDV =Vol of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole.
  14. 14Stroke volVol of blood ejected per beat.
    It is the vol in the heart just before ejection (EDV) munis vol of blood just after it (ESV)
  15. 15Ejection fraction =% of EDV ejected in 1 contraction
    SV/EDV
  16. 16What causes heart sounds?Turbulent flow of blood against closed valves just after they have shut.
  17. 17What does an ECG record?Overall spread of electric current as a function of time.
  18. 18Electrode LeadsLL = +ve earth
    RA = always -ve
    1 = arm to arm
    2 = RA=LL
    3 = LA-LL
  19. 19Arrhythmia =Abnormal heart rhythm
  20. 20FibrillationUncoordinated chaotic contraction
  21. 21Heart blockDefect in the cardiac conducting system
  22. 22Tachychardia vs bradycardiaHigh vs Low HR
  23. 23Myocardial infarctionDeath or necrosis of heart muscle
  24. 24COVolume of blood pumped out of each ventricle per min
    SV x HR
  25. 25Intrinsic control of HR is related toExtent of venous return
  26. 26Extrinsic control of HR is related toExtent of sympathetic stimulation
  27. 27Preload on the heart =Degree of myocardial stretch before contraction.
  28. 28SV is proportional toEDV
  29. 29Which way do catecholamines shift the frank-starling curve? And therefore what does that show they do?Left - showing they increase contractility of the heart as they increase SV for the same EDV.
  30. 30Force generated by a cardiac muscle is proportional toInitial length of muscle fibre
  31. 31Contractility =The strength of contraction at any given EDV
  32. 32If contractility of the heart decreases this is indicative ofHeart failure.
  33. 33Baroreceptors =Sensory non-encapsulated nerve endings located in adventitial layer arteries - aortic arch + carotid sinus
  34. 34Carotid barerecs measure blood flow toThe brain
  35. 35Aoritc barerecs measure blood flow toThe body
  36. 36Are the aoritc and carotid recs tonically acitve or not?Yes tonic
  37. 37Barorec unloading =Taking away the signal because of lower pressure.
    E.g. during haemorrhage.
  38. 38Why after a haemorrhage does the body not aim to return BP back to the normal level??This would shut off the reflex response so it deliberately keeps ABP below the original level to keep the mechanisms to cope with loss of blood activated until the blood is replaced.
  39. 39Control of SV is byIntrinsic myocardial response to stretch / EDV
    Extrinsic autonomic stimulation
  40. 40Control of HR is byAUtonomic
  41. 41Resistance is proportional to1/r^4
    Also change in P / R
  42. 42Artery characteristicsLarge diameter
    High elastic tissue
    Stiff and flexible
    Pressure reservoirs (stored pressure energy in its stretched walls)
    Low resistance
    Low compliance (prefers to recoil rather than stretch)
  43. 43Arteriole characteristicsMajor resistance vessels because of small radius
    Marked drop in MAP in them
    Converts pressure swing from arteries to constant capillary pressure
    Has rings of smooth muscle to change their diameter (which dampen the pressure fluctuations as said above)
    Highly flexible
    Little elastic
    Vascular tone
    Diameter stimulated by NO release on symp stim.
  44. 44Capillary characteristicsExchange of material
    Extensive branching
    No carrier-mediated transport systems
    High SA:V
    1 endothelial layer
    Only as wide as 1 RBC
    slow velocity of flow
  45. 45Levels of leakiness of capillaryContinuous - has pores, cells held tightly together
    Fenestrated - bigger holes in between cells
    Discontinuous - Gaps are so large thy don't look like the same vessel.
  46. 46Flow rateVolume of blood that passes a given point in the system per unit time
    (the same over the whole system)
  47. 47Velocity of flow varies inversely toCSA
  48. 48V =Q/A
    (flow rate/CSA)
  49. 49Characteristics of veinsLow BP
    One way valves - in peripheral veins
    Thin walls and elastic tissue
    No valves in central veins
    Volume reservoirs
    High compliance - as low elastic recoil
    Small pressure changes cause a large stretch.
  50. 50BPForce exerted by blood against a vessel
  51. 51TPRCombined resistance of all organs, inc'ing blood vessels.
  52. 52Increasing TPR ____es MAPIncreases
  53. 53MAP =CO x TPR
  54. 54Net pressure = (in a capillary)Hydrostatic caillary pressure - plasmoid colloid osmotic pressure
    H.static P in IF = 0
    Colloid osmotic pressure in IF is low so it only acts by the plasma drawing water in not the IF drawing water out.
  55. 55Net filtration happens in theArteries
  56. 56Net absorption happens in thecapillaries/veins
  57. 57Bulk flow =Difference in h.static and osmotic pressure between plasma and interstitial fluid.
  58. 58Net out of a cap = calledFiltration
  59. 59Hydrostatic pressure =Pressure of a fluid on the space around it.
  60. 60MorulaPre-blastocyst spherical ball of totipotent cells.
  61. 61Innate vs adaptive im sNatural vs acquired
  62. 62CytokineA secreted protein that stimulates / inihibits cell diff and prolif
  63. 63InterleukinGroup of cytokines that enable communication between leukocytes
  64. 64ChemoikinesA structurally related substance that induces chemotaxis and activation of leukocytes.
  65. 65InterferonsSoluble glycoproteins with antiviral properties
  66. 66AntibodiesMain-chain gylcoproteins that are produced by B lymphocytes containing a variable antigen binding site and a constant region.
  67. 67ComplementSoluble proteins that complement the action antibodies in a cascade of enzymes that can kill pathogens by punching holes in target membranes.
    They = pro-enzymes which are activated by being cleaved into a smaller a fragment and the large b fragment.
  68. 68LeukocyteAny cell with a nucleus in the blood.
  69. 69T & B cells are from the common cell:'lymphoid progenator'
  70. 70What receptors do T cells have?CD4/8
    TCR
    CD40L - transiently expressed to bind B cell.
    CD28 - bound to B7 on B cell when it stimulate the T cell.
  71. 71What receptors do B cells have?BCR / Ig
    CD40
    B7 - binds CD28 on T
  72. 72Cytokines released to cause class switching to; IgE, IgA and IgGIgE -> IL4
    IgA -> TGF beta
    IgG -> IFN gamma
  73. 73What do resting T and B cells have?Large nucleus and little cytoplasm.
  74. 74How can you distinguish and active B and T cell?Active B cell has extensive gogi and ER
  75. 75What are pattern recognition receptors, give an example.They are surface cell receptors that recognise non-self pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs).
    E.g. Toll-like receptors, TLRs
    NOD-like receptors.
  76. 76NK cells are AKAType I Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs)
  77. 77What do active NK cells release and what does it do?The release IFN gamma to protect surrounding cells by enhancing development of specific T cell responses directed to virus-infected cells.
  78. 78What receptors do NK cells have?KIRs
    Killer-cell inhibitory receptors
  79. 793 types of dendritic cellLangerhan
    Interdigitation
    Follicular dendritic cells
  80. 80Explain how DC cells represent the link between innate and adaptive immune systemsThe detect pathogens via innate receptors and present them vie endogenous processing to T and B cells to stimulate the specific immune response.
  81. 814 phagocytesMonocytes
    Macrophages
    Neutrophils (most abundant)
    DCs
  82. 82Trade mark of a neutrophilMulti-lobed nucleus
  83. 83Perforin = forPunching holes in a cell membrane
  84. 84Granzymes =Proteolytic enzymes that move through the holes perforin makes.
  85. 85Granules contain: (3)Peroxidase
    Alkaline and acid phosphatases
    Defensins
  86. 86Neutrophils = attracted to bacterial chemical products. This phenomenon = called...Chemotaxis
  87. 87Following phagocytosis what do neutrophils do to kill the microbe it has ingested?Produces an oxidative burst of O2
  88. 88Process of phagocytosisPhagocyte moves to microbe by chemotaxic signalling
    Attaches by sugars, complement and Fc receptors
    Endocytoses by invagination of the membrane.
    Phagosome fuses w/ a lysosome.
    Microbe = killed by O2/ NO
  89. 894 granulocytesEosinophils
    Basophils
    Mast cells
    Neutrophils
  90. 90What = an Eosinophil responsible for?Killing large extracellular parasites that cannot be phagocytosed.
  91. 91Roles of complementOpsoniztation (by C3b)
    Clumping of pathogens
    Anaphylotoxins
    Increase inflammation by activating mast cells and increasing blood supply in that area.
    Killing of microbes.
  92. 92OpsonisationProcess of makinga microbe easier to phagocytos.
    Opsins and complement C3b aids attachment of microbes to phagocytes.
  93. 93What is the Fc region?The constant region on an Ig which determines its biological properties.
  94. 94Which enzyme is involved in alternate splicing for isotype switching?AID
  95. 95When IgM/IgG attach to an antigen what happens, in terms of complementThe classical pathway of complement is activated leading to complement-mediated lysis of the microbe on which the antigen was located.
  96. 96How many chains make up an Ig4
  97. 97CDR stands forComplementary Determining Region
  98. 98Anti-b variable region varies because ofRecombination of genetic elements (V, D & J)
  99. 99Which Ig's are present on naive B cells?IgM and IgD
  100. 100IgM = good at _____ and had a ____ shapeComplement activation
    Pentameric
  101. 101IgA is good for And is ____icMucosal surfaces
    Dimeric
  102. 102IgG is good at activatingNK cells
  103. 103IgE = good at activatingMast cells
  104. 104What 2 things in a secondary immune response make the antibodies different?Isotype switching
    Affinity Maturation - V regions have undergone somatic mutation.
  105. 105What is allelic exclusion?Excluding other arrangements of variable region once an Ig had committed to a particular one. There is then active repression of further recombination.
  106. 1064 reason why Ig V region = variablePolygenic - V, D and J code for it
    Polymorphic - many alleles of each can be used
    They are joined in many combinations
    Imprecise joining of them
  107. 1072 primary lymphoid tissuesBone marrow and thymus
  108. 1083 secondary lymphoid tissuesLymph nodes
    MALT
    spleen
  109. 109Talk about the bone marrowProduces progenators of the haematopoietic system
    Wher initial B cell selection takes place
    Partially mature B cells are exported from there
    Pre-T cells migrate from here to the thymus.
  110. 110Talk about the thymusHas small lobules of medullary (inside) and cortical (outside) cells.
    Site of T cell selection and maturation.
    Lymphocyte rich
  111. 111T cell selection and maturationDouble -ve T cells enter at the corticomedullary junction and transverse up through the cortex.
    TCR is manufactured and it becomes double +ve
    Cortical epithelial cell presents MHC's and determines if TCR binds at the correct strength to non-self antigens - +ve selection.
    Next the T cell moves to the medulla and an MEC presents self antigens and kills T cells which bind - -ve selection.
    MEC and CEC also release thymosina and thymopoietin.
    Before the cell leaves the medulla is loses one of CD4/8.
    Mature naive T cell then leaves.
  112. 112SpleenMonitors systemic circulation.
    Only has an efferent lymphatic system (unlike lymphnodes)
    Traps blood borne microbes and produces an immune response. Consists of organised islands of white pulp (lymphoid tissue) in red pulp (has RBCs)
  113. 113Lymphatic systemSmall blind-ended vessels draining from tissue into lymph nodes (afferent)
    and from lymph nodes into efferent vessles
    Has follicles with germinal centres which are the site of antigen-dep B cell proliferation.
    Paracortext = mainly T cells
    Cortex = mainly B cells
  114. 114What things are involved in lymphocyte migration? And which is for rolling and which is for arrest?L-selectins - rolling
    Integrins - arrest
  115. 1153 main functions of Ig'sOpsonisation
    Neutralisation
    Complement activation
  116. 116What happens to primary lymphoid follicles during an immune response?They develop germinal centres and become secondary follicles.
  117. 117Class I & II MHC processing pathway Which = exo and which = endo =genous?I = Endo
    II = Exo
  118. 118MHC loci complex in man =HLA
  119. 119Graft types: Autologous; allogenic, syngenicFrom self, genetically different person, genetically identical person
  120. 120Is it B or T cells that require MHC's to 'see' antigens?T
    (B cells 'see' them w/ their BCR's and then use their MHCII's to present the antigen for T cells).
  121. 121Describe the structure of an MHCI1 heavy chain with 3 alpha domains
    1 beta-2 microglobulin not encoded by MHC
    Peptide binding groove is made from only the alpha chain and bonds 9-11 AA peptides very tightly.
    Only one (alpha) chain is anchored into the membrane.
  122. 122Describe the structure of an MHCII2 MHC chains, both forming the peptide binding groove
    Peptide binding = loose and wider with the peptide hanging out.
    Both chains are anchored into the membrane.
  123. 123What are the MHC I + II genes?I: HLA-A, B, C
    II: HLA-DP, DQ, DR
  124. 124Two ways MHC's = diversePolygenic (+ genes are codominant)
    Polymorphic
  125. 125How are MHC genes inherited?As a haplotype
  126. 126HaplotypeA combination of encoded alleles w/in an MHC locus
  127. 127MHC expressionI -> all nucleated cells
    II -> APCs - macrophages, B cells etc.
  128. 128MHC has ____ ______ preference for the sort of peptide it is trying to presentAllelic peptide preference
  129. 129TAP 1+2 = genes forA peptide transporter
  130. 130LMP = gene forProteasome
  131. 1313 mechanisms of asexual reproductionFission
    Budding
    Fragmentation
  132. 132ParthenogenesisOrganisms that produce offspring via an egg without fertilisation
  133. 1333 modes of internal fertilisationOviparous
    Viviparous
    Ovoviviparous
  134. 134Oviparous (inc eg. organisms)Produce eggs
    E.g. reptiles and birds
  135. 135ViviparousLive young
    Eutherian - w/ true placenta
    or metatherians - marsupials w/ no placenta
  136. 136OvoviviparousYoung = in eggs but held in the mother's body and hatch there before they are born.
    No uterus or placenta
    E.g. some fish and amphibians
  137. 1374 mating systemsMonogamy - 1 partner
    Promiscuous - live in groups and mate randomly with different partners
    Polyandry - 1F lots of Ms
    Polygyny - Lots of Fs, 1 Ms
  138. 138Female choice caises...sexual dimorphism
  139. 139What does sexual dimorphism allow?Genders to advertise to each other and males to compete with each other.
  140. 140Gonads =Organs that produce gamtese
  141. 141HermaphroditismA variation on sexual reproduction
  142. 1422 types of hermaphroditismSimultaneous or sequential
  143. 143Testosterone = produced by which cells?Leidig
  144. 144AMH = produced by which cells?Sertoli cells
  145. 145Production of gametes = under ____ controlEndocrine
  146. 146Which 3 glands are involved in production of hormones for gametogenesisHypothalamus
    Pituitary
    Gonads
  147. 147Steriod hormones = derived from...Cholesterol
  148. 148GnRH release causes release ofLH and FSH
  149. 149LH and FSH are from the ____ glandAnterior pituitary
  150. 1505 functions of testosteroneMasculinises tract
    Promotes descent of testes
    Development of secondary sexual characteristics
    Sex drive at puberty
  151. 151The 3 major steps of spermatogenesis1) Mitotic division
    2) Meiotic division (x2)
    3) Cytodifferentiation
  152. 1521 spermatogonium : _ sprematozoa4
  153. 153Sperm are stored and concentrated inEpididymis and ductus deferens
  154. 154The release of sprem 4 phasesExcitation
    Plateau
    Orgasmic
    Resolution
  155. 155OestrogenResponsibly for ova maturation
    Female secondary sexual characteristics
    Feedback on pituitary gonads
  156. 156ProgesteroneEffect on uterus
    Feedback on pituitary gonads
    Thermogenic
  157. 1571 oocyte : __ ovum1
  158. 158oogonium -> ovum stagesoogonium, primary oocyte, enlarged oocyte, secondary oocyte, mature ovum.
  159. 159How can you clinically test for ovulation?Endometrium biopsy
    Cervical mucus
    Body temperature
    Hormone levels
  160. 160Uterine endometrium =lining of the uterus
  161. 161What releases GnRH?Hypothalamus
  162. 162What causes the LH surge?A switch from negative to positive feedback of Oe on LH when [Oe] gets very high.
  163. 163What prevents a continual LH surge?Progesterone, decreasing the Oe positive feedback on LH.
  164. 164ART =Assisted reproductive therapy
  165. 165Which cells surround an egg? And what layer surround it to prevent polyspermy?Corona radiata
    ZOna pelucida

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Year 1 Uni FlashCards sobre Physiology term 2 flashcards, criado por J000D97 em 11-04-2016.
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