Quiz
Endocrine
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1Hormone: must travel in the [blank_start]blood[blank_end].
[blank_start]Endocrine[blank_end] gland cells secrete hormones ([blank_start]chemical[blank_end] messengers) which are carried in the [blank_start]blood[blank_end] to the [blank_start]target cells[blank_end].
[blank_start]Endocrine[blank_end] glands: many, [blank_start]varied[blank_end] locations in body but [blank_start]common[blank_end] function, secrete hormones which will then travel to [blank_start]other[blank_end] locations
[blank_start]Target[blank_end] cell: has [blank_start]specific[blank_end] receptor for a hormone.
Receptor: specifically [blank_start]shaped[blank_end] for hormones ([blank_start]lock and key[blank_end] fit)- Ablood
- BEndocrine
- Cchemical
- Dtarget cells
- Eblood
- FEndocrine
- Gvaried
- Hcommon
- Iother
- Jspecific
- KTarget
- Lshaped
- Mlock and key
2Specificity of Hormone Action
Once hormones are released, there is [blank_start]no further[blank_end] control over [blank_start]where[blank_end] it goes or what [blank_start]cells[blank_end] it will encounter. [blank_start]Target[blank_end] cells show [blank_start]specific[blank_end] receptors (protein) either on [blank_start]cell surface[blank_end] or [blank_start]intracellular[blank_end] receptors in [blank_start]cytoplasm[blank_end] or [blank_start]nucleus[blank_end]. [blank_start]Chemical structure[blank_end] of hormone and receptor allows them to bind closely and that causes a [blank_start]response[blank_end] in the cells → this creates [blank_start]specificity[blank_end] of hormone response- Ano further
- BTarget
- Cspecific
- Dcell surface
- Eintracellular
- Fcytoplasm
- Gnucleus
- Hwhere
- Icells
- JChemical structure
- Kresponse
- Lspecificity
3Water soluble hormones can be [blank_start]polypeptide chains[blank_end] or [blank_start]catecholamines like adrenaline[blank_end]. They make up about 75% of hormones. They are [blank_start]soluble in water[blank_end] which means they [blank_start]can travel dissolved in blood[blank_end] but [blank_start]cannot cross cell membranes[blank_end]. This means they [blank_start]can be made in advance and stored[blank_end] and their receptors are located [blank_start]on the target cell membrane[blank_end]. The binding [blank_start]activates a second messenger in the cell[blank_end] and causes [blank_start]a cascade of changes in the cell[blank_end]. It [blank_start]activates existing proteins in the cell[blank_end] which means it [blank_start]occurs very fast[blank_end], from [blank_start]milliseconds to minutes[blank_end].
Lipid soluble hormones include [blank_start]steroids[blank_end] or [blank_start]thyroid hormones (amino acid derivative)[blank_end]. They are [blank_start]not soluble in water[blank_end] which means they [blank_start]travel in blood bound to carrier protein[blank_end] but [blank_start]can diffuse easily through cell membrane[blank_end]. [blank_start]Steroids, made from cholesterol[blank_end], are made [blank_start]as required and not stored[blank_end]. The exception is [blank_start]thyroid hormones[blank_end], which are made in [blank_start]thyroid cells[blank_end] and [blank_start]stored until required[blank_end]. This is possible because they are [blank_start]an amino acid derivative.[blank_end] Their receptors are [blank_start]intracellular in cytoplasm or nucleus[blank_end]. The binding [blank_start]alters gene transcription in the cell[blank_end] and causes [blank_start]it to transcribe new mRNA[blank_end]. It [blank_start]creates new proteins through translation[blank_end] which means it [blank_start]is a slower process[blank_end], from [blank_start]half an hour to days[blank_end].- Apolypeptide chains
- Bcatecholamines like adrenaline
- Csoluble in water
- Dcan travel dissolved in blood
- Ecannot cross cell membranes
- Fcan be made in advance and stored
- Gon the target cell membrane
- Hactivates a second messenger in the cell
- Ia cascade of changes in the cell
- Jactivates existing proteins in the cell
- Koccurs very fast
- Lmilliseconds to minutes
- Msteroids
- Nthyroid hormones (amino acid derivative)
- Onot soluble in water
- Ptravel in blood bound to carrier protein
- Qcan diffuse easily through cell membrane
- RSteroids, made from cholesterol
- Sas required and not stored
- Tthyroid hormones
- Uthyroid cells
- Vstored until required
- Wan amino acid derivative.
- Xintracellular in cytoplasm or nucleus
- Yalters gene transcription in the cell
- Zit to transcribe new mRNA
- AAcreates new proteins through translation
- ABis a slower process
- AChalf an hour to days
4Neuronal
method of travel: [blank_start]action potentials down axons[blank_end]
location: [blank_start]often very close to target cell[blank_end]
specificity: [blank_start]specificity from anatomical positioning[blank_end]
speed: [blank_start]very fast transmission[blank_end]
duration of response: [blank_start]brief responses[blank_end]
good for: [blank_start]rapid and specific responses[blank_end]
Hormonal
method of travel: [blank_start]released into blood stream[blank_end]
location: [blank_start]have to travel elsewhere in body[blank_end]
specificity: [blank_start]specificity through receptors[blank_end]
speed: [blank_start]relatively slow[blank_end]
duration of response: [blank_start]long lasting responses[blank_end]
good for: [blank_start]widespread and sustained responses[blank_end]- Aaction potentials down axons
- Boften very close to target cell
- Cspecificity from anatomical positioning
- Dvery fast transmission
- Ebrief responses
- Frapid and specific responses
- Greleased into blood stream
- Hhave to travel elsewhere in body
- Ispecificity through receptors
- Jrelatively slow
- Klong lasting responses
- Lwidespread and sustained responses
- Mrapid and widespread responses
- Nspecific and sustained responses
- Overy slow
- Prelatively fast
- Qspecificity through cell type
- Rspecificity through different hormones
- Sspecificity through neurotransmitters
5Hormone secretion is mostly controlled by [blank_start]negative feedback[blank_end].
1. [blank_start]Control variable[blank_end] goes out of [blank_start]reference range[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Sensor[blank_end] detects deviation and causes [blank_start]hormone[blank_end] to be released
3. Once [blank_start]variable[blank_end] is back in [blank_start]reference range[blank_end], hormone is [blank_start]switched off[blank_end]
4. [blank_start]Very tight[blank_end] control of hormone in blood through [blank_start]negative feedback[blank_end]
[blank_start]Removal of hormones from blood[blank_end] is also controlled: can be broken down [blank_start]by enzymes[blank_end] or removed through [blank_start]kidneys[blank_end]
[blank_start]Too much or too little[blank_end] hormone can lead to endocrine disorders.- Anegative feedback
- Bpositive feedback
- Cfeedforward
- DControl variable
- ESensor
- FIntegrator
- GEffector
- Hreference range
- Iset point value
- Jcontrol range
- Kset range
- LSensor
- MIntegrator
- NEffector
- OControl variable
- Phormone
- Qnerve signal
- Rchemical signal
- Selectrical signal
- Tvariable
- Usensor
- Vhormone
- Wset point
- Xreference range
- Yset range
- Zset point value
- AAcontrol range
- ABswitched off
- ACproduced
- ADreleased
- AEVery tight
- AFVery little
- AGnegative feedback
- AHfeedforward
- AIpositive feedback
- AJRemoval of hormones from blood
- AKSecretion of hormones is also controlled
- ALHormone production is also controlled
- AMPositive feedback is also controlled
- ANby enzymes
- AOby hormone-lytes
- APby lysosomes
- AQby the bouton
- ARkidneys
- ASliver
- ATendocrine glands
- AUtarget cell
- AVToo much or too little
- AWToo much
- AXToo little
6The pancreas is found in the [blank_start]abdominal cavity[blank_end] under [blank_start]stomach[blank_end]. It interacts with the early part of the [blank_start]small intestine[blank_end] = duodenum. The endocrine gland is made up of [blank_start]pancreatic islets[blank_end].
[blank_start]Alpha[blank_end] cells secrete glucagon
[blank_start]Beta[blank_end] cells secrete insulin- Aabdominal cavity
- Bstomach
- Csmall intestine
- Dpancreatic islets
- EAlpha
- FBeta
7The normal blood glucose concentration is fasting: [blank_start]3.5[blank_end] - [blank_start]6[blank_end] mmol/L or fed: [blank_start]3.5[blank_end] - [blank_start]8[blank_end] mmol/L
Glucose is produced from [blank_start]carbohydrates[blank_end], broken down by digestive [blank_start]enzymes[blank_end] in GI tract, absorbed into [blank_start]blood[blank_end]
Loss of function can occur if the level gets too [blank_start]high or low[blank_end]. We only eat [blank_start]intermittently[blank_end] but we use fuel [blank_start]continuously[blank_end] so blood glucose concentration [blank_start]changes[blank_end] throughout the day. Glucose is the only fuel the [blank_start]brain[blank_end] uses.- A3.5
- B6
- C3.5
- D8
- Ecarbohydrates
- Fenzymes
- Gblood
- Hhigh or low
- Iintermittently
- Jcontinuously
- Kchanges
- Lbrain
8Insulin secretion
- Ablood glucose above reference range
- Bblood glucose below reference range
- Cpancreatic islet beta cells
- Dpancreatic islet alpha cells
- Esecrete insulin into bloodstream
- FLiver cells
- G↑ glucose uptake, stop glucose output
- H↑ glycogen and fat synthesis
- Imuscle cells
- Jadipose cells
- K↑ glucose uptake
- L↓ glucose uptake
- Mfat synthesis
- N↑ amino acid uptake
- O↑ glycogen and protein synthesis
- Pblood glucose decreases
- Qblood glucose increases
- Rpeptide hormone
- Ssteroid hormone
- Tintracellular receptors
- Umembrane receptors
- V↓
- W↑
9Glucagon secretion
- ABlood glucose below reference range
- BBlood glucose above reference range
- Cpancreatic islet alpha cells
- Dpancreatic islet beta cells
- Esecrete glucagon into bloodstream
- FLiver cells
- GMuscle cells
- HAdipose cells
- I↑ glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
- J↑ glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis)
- K↑ ketone synthesis
- Lincrease blood glucose concentration
- Mincrease blood ketone concentration
- Nglycogen
- Oglucagon
- P↑
- Qpeptide hormone
- Rmembrane receptors
- Ssteroid hormone
- Tintracellular receptors
- U↓ glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis)
- V↓ glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis)
- W↓ ketone synthesis
- Xdecrease blood glucose concentration
- Ydecrease blood ketone concentration
10When blood glucose concentration increases above the reference range i.e. in the [blank_start]fed[blank_end] state, [blank_start]insulin[blank_end] is secreted from [blank_start]beta[blank_end] cells of the pancreas. It increases [blank_start]cellular uptake[blank_end] of nutrients, [blank_start]anabolic[blank_end] metabolism ([blank_start]synthesis[blank_end] of glycogen, protein and fat) and breaks down [blank_start]food to be stored for later[blank_end].
Sensor: [blank_start]beta cells[blank_end]
Integrator: [blank_start]beta cells (as well)[blank_end]Target cells: [blank_start]muscle, adipose cells and liver[blank_end]
[blank_start]Negative feedback[blank_end] loop.
There is also [blank_start]feedforward[blank_end] for insulin secretion, when [blank_start]food enters GI pancreas secretes insulin[blank_end] ([blank_start]physiological feedforward[blank_end]), [blank_start]before[blank_end] blood glucose levels have increased.
Pancreas: senses [blank_start]increased blood glucose concentration[blank_end] and secretes [blank_start]insulin without input brain input[blank_end]
[blank_start]Muscle[blank_end] cells: increases uptake of [blank_start]glucose and amino acids[blank_end], increases [blank_start]glycogen and protein[blank_end] synthesis
[blank_start]Adipose[blank_end] cells: increases uptake of [blank_start]glucose[blank_end], increases [blank_start]fat[blank_end] synthesis
[blank_start]Liver[blank_end]: stops [blank_start]glucose output, increases glucose uptake[blank_end], increases [blank_start]glycogen and fat[blank_end] synthesis
Insulin: is the [blank_start]only[blank_end] hormone that can [blank_start]reduce[blank_end] blood glucose concentration, no back up system
When blood glucose concentration decreases below the reference range i.e. in the [blank_start]fasted[blank_end] state, [blank_start]glucagon[blank_end] is secreted from [blank_start]alpha[blank_end] cells of the pancreas. It increases [blank_start]mobilisation[blank_end] of nutrients, [blank_start]catabolic[blank_end] metabolism ([blank_start]breakdown[blank_end] of glycogen, protein and fat) and breaks down [blank_start]stored fuel releasing glucose into blood[blank_end].
Sensor: [blank_start]alpha cells[blank_end]Integrator: [blank_start]alpha cells (as well)[blank_end]
Target cells: [blank_start]only Liver[blank_end]
[blank_start]Negative[blank_end] feedback loop.
Pancreas: senses [blank_start]decreased blood glucose concentration[blank_end] and secretes [blank_start]glucagon without brain input[blank_end]
Target cell Liver: increases [blank_start]breakdown of glycogen[blank_end], increases [blank_start]glucose synthesis[blank_end], increases [blank_start]ketone[blank_end] synthesis
Note: [blank_start]Growth hormone, adrenaline and cortisol[blank_end] also [blank_start]increase[blank_end] blood glucose concentration. [blank_start]Ketones[blank_end] can be used as a back-up fuel source by [blank_start]some[blank_end] cells.- Afed
- Binsulin
- Cbeta
- Dcellular uptake
- Eanabolic
- Fsynthesis
- Gfood to be stored for later
- Hbeta cells
- Ibeta cells (as well)
- Jmuscle, adipose cells and liver
- KNegative feedback
- Lfeedforward
- Mfood enters GI pancreas secretes insulin
- Nphysiological feedforward
- Obehavioural feedforward
- Pbefore
- Qincreased blood glucose concentration
- Rinsulin without input brain input
- Sglucose and amino acids
- Tglycogen and protein
- Uglucose
- VMuscle
- WAdipose
- XLiver
- Yfat
- Zglucose output, increases glucose uptake
- AAglycogen and fat
- ABonly
- ACreduce
- ADfasted
- AEglucagon
- AFalpha
- AGmobilisation
- AHcatabolic
- AIbreakdown
- AJstored fuel releasing glucose into blood
- AKalpha cells
- ALalpha cells (as well)
- AMonly Liver
- ANNegative
- AOdecreased blood glucose concentration
- APglucagon without brain input
- AQbreakdown of glycogen
- ARglucose synthesis
- ASketone
- ATGrowth hormone, adrenaline and cortisol
- AUincrease
- AVKetones
- AWsome
- AXall
- AYmost
11Diabetes symptoms: [blank_start]high blood glucose[blank_end] (hyperglycaemia), [blank_start]glucose in urine[blank_end] (glycosuria), [blank_start]large urine volume[blank_end] (polyuria), [blank_start]thirst[blank_end] (polydipsia), [blank_start]hunger[blank_end] (polyphagia)
Type 1: Normally diagnosed in [blank_start]childhood[blank_end] so sometimes called [blank_start]juvenile[blank_end] diabetes. [blank_start]No[blank_end] insulin so “[blank_start]insulin dependent[blank_end]” diabetes.
Type 2: Is normally [blank_start]preventable[blank_end]. Treatment includes [blank_start]lifestyle changes[blank_end] as well as medications. Risk factors include: [blank_start]Age[blank_end], [blank_start]Obesity[blank_end]. [blank_start]Resistant to[blank_end] insulin → can become [blank_start]insulin dependent[blank_end]. [blank_start]Hyperglycaemia[blank_end] but different metabolic profile to Type 1 e.g less [blank_start]fat[blank_end] breakdown and [blank_start]ketone[blank_end] production
Complications:
Atherosclerosis - can lead to [blank_start]heart[blank_end] attack, [blank_start]stroke[blank_end]
[blank_start]Kidney[blank_end] disease
[blank_start]Nerve[blank_end] damage
[blank_start]Retinal[blank_end] changes - [blank_start]blindness[blank_end]- Ahigh blood glucose
- Bglucose in urine
- Clarge urine volume
- Dthirst
- Ehunger
- Fchildhood
- Gjuvenile
- HNo
- Iinsulin dependent
- Jpreventable
- Klifestyle changes
- LAge
- MObesity
- NResistant to
- Oinsulin dependent
- PHyperglycaemia
- Qfat
- Rketone
- Sheart
- Tstroke
- UKidney
- VNerve
- WRetinal
- Xblindness
12Pituitary gland has two parts:
[blank_start]posterior[blank_end] lobe - neurohypophysis ([blank_start]extension of the hypothalamus[blank_end])
[blank_start]anterior[blank_end] lobe - adenohypophysis ([blank_start]typical endocrine tissue[blank_end])
It weighs about [blank_start]half a gram[blank_end], is located [blank_start]at the base of the brain[blank_end] and is attached to the [blank_start]hypothalamus[blank_end]. [blank_start]The hypothalamus[blank_end] controls the [blank_start]secretion of pituitary hormones[blank_end]. Some pituitary hormones stimulate [blank_start]target cells[blank_end] and some stimulate the [blank_start]secretion of hormones[blank_end] by other endocrine glands- Aanterior
- Bposterior
- Cextension of the hypothalamus
- Dtypical endocrine tissue
- Ehalf a gram
- Fa gram
- G5 grams
- Hat the base of the brain
- Iinferior to the thyroid
- Jon top of the kidneys
- Kon the stomach
- Lhypothalamus
- Mthalamus
- Nparathyroid
- OThe hypothalamus
- PThe pituitary gland
- Qsecretion of pituitary hormones
- Rsecretion of hormones
- Starget cells
13Mechanism for posterior pituitary hormone secretion
Stimulus: [blank_start]neural input[blank_end] to hypothalamus
Hypothalamus: signals the posterior pituitary to release stored hormones by [blank_start]neural stimulation[blank_end]
Hormones: are made in the [blank_start]hypothalamus[blank_end], [blank_start]travel down the axon[blank_end] and stored [blank_start]in posterior pituitary until required[blank_end], released into blood ([blank_start]peptide[blank_end] hormones):
- [blank_start]Antidiuretic[blank_end] hormone stimulates [blank_start]the kidneys to reabsorb/conserve water[blank_end]
- [blank_start]Oxytocin[blank_end] stimulates [blank_start]uterus contraction in childbirth[blank_end] and [blank_start]milk release for breastfeeding[blank_end]
Mechanism for anterior pituitary hormone secretion
Stimulus: [blank_start]neural input[blank_end] into hypothalamus
Hypothalamus: signals the anterior pituitary to release hormones by [blank_start]hormonal stimulation[blank_end]
Hormones: are made in the [blank_start]anterior pituitary by specific cells[blank_end], until [blank_start]signal comes from hypothalamus[blank_end], released into blood ([blank_start]peptide[blank_end] hormones):
- Anterior pituitary hormones [blank_start]promote or inhibit production of[blank_end] hormones
- Hormone binds to receptor on membrane of [blank_start]endocrine cell[blank_end] and another hormone is secreted e.g. [blank_start]prolactin[blank_end], [blank_start]growth hormone[blank_end]- Aneural input
- Bhormonal input
- Cneural stimulation
- Dhormonal stimulation
- Ehypothalamus
- Fposterior pituitary by specific cells
- Ganterior pituitary by specific cells
- Hthalamus
- Itravel down the axon
- Jtravel through the bloodstream
- Ktravel by diffusion
- Lin posterior pituitary until required
- Min anterior pituitary until required
- Nin hypothalamus until required
- Oin thalamus until required
- Ppeptide
- Qlipid soluble
- Rcatecholamine
- Ssteroid
- TAntidiuretic
- UOxytocin
- VProlactin
- WGrowth
- Xthe kidneys to reabsorb/conserve water
- Yuterus contraction
- Zbone and muscle growth
- AAthe kidneys to release water
- ABOxytocin
- ACAntidiuretic hormone
- ADProlactin
- AEGrowth hormone
- AFuterus contraction in childbirth
- AGgrowth in foetus and newborns
- AHincreased calcium resorption
- AImilk release for breastfeeding
- AJincreased glycogen synthesis
- AKincreased metabolism
- ALneural input
- AMhormonal input
- ANhormonal stimulation
- AOneuronal stimulation
- APanterior pituitary by specific cells
- AQposterior pituitary by specific cells
- ARhypothalamus
- ASthalamus
- ATsignal comes from hypothalamus
- AUrequired
- AVsignal from posterior pituitary
- AWsignal from anterior pituitary
- AXpeptide
- AYsteroid
- AZcatecholamines
- BAlipid soluble
- BBpromote or inhibit production of
- BCpromote production of
- BDinhibit production of
- BEproduce
- BFrelease
- BGendocrine cell
- BHtarget cell
- BIhypothalamus
- BJposterior pituitary
- BKprolactin
- BLoxytocin
- BMinsulin
- BNgrowth hormone
- BOglucagon
- BPcalcitonin
14Growth Hormone
[blank_start]Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)[blank_end] promotes release of [blank_start]Growth Hormone (GH)[blank_end][blank_start]Somatostatin (SS)[blank_end] inhibits release of [blank_start]GH[blank_end]
GH has direct [blank_start]metabolic effects[blank_end] and indirect [blank_start]effects on growth[blank_end].
Metabolic effects:
- stimulates [blank_start]protein synthesis (muscle)[blank_end]- increases [blank_start]blood glucose concentration[blank_end] by stimulating [blank_start]glucose synthesis[blank_end] (in [blank_start]liver[blank_end]) and inhibiting [blank_start]cellular uptake of glucose[blank_end] (in [blank_start]muscle[blank_end])
- increases [blank_start]fat[blank_end] breakdown and [blank_start]free fatty acid[blank_end] mobilisation (from [blank_start]fat cells[blank_end])
It also causes release of [blank_start]Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF-1)[blank_end] from [blank_start]the liver[blank_end]. [blank_start]IGF-1[blank_end] has a [blank_start]direct[blank_end] effect promoting the growth of [blank_start]bones, muscles and other tissues[blank_end] by stimulating [blank_start]cell division[blank_end].
GH has a long-term effect on [blank_start]growth[blank_end] and a short-term effect on [blank_start]metabolism[blank_end]
Growth hormone release is highest when you are [blank_start]sleeping[blank_end]. Concentrations are higher in [blank_start]children[blank_end] than [blank_start]adults[blank_end] with a peak period during [blank_start]puberty[blank_end].- AGrowth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
- BGrowth Hormone (GH)
- CSomatostatin (SS)
- DGH
- Emetabolic effects
- Feffects on growth
- Gprotein synthesis (muscle)
- Hblood glucose concentration
- Iglucose synthesis
- Jliver
- Kcellular uptake of glucose
- Lmuscle
- Mfat
- Nfree fatty acid
- Ofat cells
- PInsulin-like Growth Factor (IGF-1)
- Qthe liver
- RIGF-1
- Sdirect
- Tindirect
- Ubones, muscles and other tissues
- Vcell division
- Wgrowth
- Xmetabolism
- Ysleeping
- Zawake
- AAeating
- ABactive
- ACchildren
- ADadults
- AEpuberty
15Growth Hormone Secretion and Effects
- Astress, sleep, exercise, fasting
- Bstress, sleep, exercise
- Csleep, exercise, fasting
- Dstress, exercise, fasting
- Ehypothalamus
- FGHRH
- GSS
- Hanterior pituitary
- IGH
- JLiver
- KIGF-1
- Lincrease glucose synthesis
- MMetabolic effects (direct effect of GH)
- Nmuscle
- O↑ protein synthesis, ↓ glucose uptake
- Pfat
- Q↑ fat breakdown, mobilise fatty acids
- Rbone, muscle, other tissue
- Scell division (growth)
16Growth hormone disorders
[blank_start]Hypo[blank_end]secretion: too little (or none)
[blank_start]Hyper[blank_end]secretion: too much
Growth hormone
deficiency: ([blank_start]dwarfism[blank_end])
excess: ([blank_start]gigantism[blank_end])
Hormone receptors
[blank_start]Hypo[blank_end]sensitive: little response (or no) response
[blank_start]Hyper[blank_end]sensitive: respond too much- AHypo
- BHyper
- Cdwarfism
- Dgigantism
- EHypo
- FHyper
17The Thyroid gland is located on the [blank_start]anterior and lateral[blank_end] surfaces of the [blank_start]trachea[blank_end], just below the [blank_start]larynx[blank_end]. It is made up of [blank_start]spherical[blank_end] sacs called [blank_start]follicles[blank_end] surrounded by [blank_start]follicular cells[blank_end], [blank_start]blood vessels[blank_end] and [blank_start]parafollicular cells[blank_end]. It secretes [blank_start]thyroid[blank_end] hormone and [blank_start]calcitonin[blank_end].
The parathyroid is [blank_start]posterior[blank_end] to thyroid, secretes [blank_start]parathyroid[blank_end] hormone.- Aanterior and lateral
- Banterior and medial
- Cposterior and lateral
- Dposterior and medial
- Etrachea
- Flarynx
- Gkidneys
- Hstomach
- Ilarynx
- Jtrachea
- Kkidneys
- Lstomach
- Mspherical
- Ncuboid
- Opyramidal
- Pfollicles
- Qfollicular cells
- Rparacfollicular cells
- Sfollicular cells
- Tfollicles
- Uparafollicular cells
- Vblood vessels
- Wnerves
- Xparafollicular cells
- Yfollicles
- Zparathyroid cells
- AAthyroid
- ABtyroid
- ACiodide
- ADgrowth
- AEcalcitonin
- AFprolactin
- AGoxytocin
- AHcortisol
- AIposterior
- AJanterior
- AKsuperior
- ALinferior
- AMparathyroid
- ANthyroid
- AOcalcitonin
- APadrenaline
18Thyroid Hormone Synthesis
Thyroid hormone is [blank_start]lipid[blank_end] soluble [blank_start]but it is made ahead and stored[blank_end]. [blank_start]Follicle[blank_end] cells release [blank_start]protein[blank_end] called [blank_start]thyroglobulin (TGB)[blank_end] into [blank_start]follicle[blank_end]. [blank_start]Iodine[blank_end] (from diet) binds to tyrosine in [blank_start]TGB[blank_end] then moves into [blank_start]follicular cells[blank_end]. Two types: [blank_start]T3[blank_end] (active form) and [blank_start]T4[blank_end] (more plentiful form). Number is number of [blank_start]iodine[blank_end] bonded.
When signal comes, [blank_start]thyroid hormones detach from TGB[blank_end] and [blank_start]travel bound to carrier protein[blank_end] ([blank_start]thyroid-binding globulin - TBG[blank_end]) to target cells. Receptor [blank_start]in nucleus[blank_end], [blank_start]T3[blank_end] receptor, already bound to [blank_start]specific DNA site[blank_end] → ready for [blank_start]transcription and translation[blank_end] → [blank_start]protein[blank_end] to have action → one key example is [blank_start]sodium-potassium pump[blank_end] → increases energy use at rest. The response time is [blank_start]45 minutes - days[blank_end].- Alipid
- Bwater
- Cnot
- Dbut it is made ahead and stored
- Eso it is made as required
- Fso it is made ahead and stored
- Gbut it is made as required
- HFollicle
- IParafollicular
- JParathyroid
- Kprotein
- Llipid
- Mcarbohydrate
- Nthyroglobulin (TGB)
- Othyroglobulin (TBG)
- Pthyroid-binding globulin (TGB)
- Qthyroid-binding globulin (TBG)
- Rfollicle
- Sparafollicular cells
- Tparathyroid
- UIodine
- VCalcium
- WIron
- XSugar
- YTGB
- ZTBG
- AAfollicular cells
- ABparafollicular cells
- ACparathyroid
- ADfollicle
- AEFollicular
- AFfollicular cells
- AGT3
- AHT1
- AIT2
- AJT4
- AKT4
- ALT1
- AMT2
- ANT3
- AOiodine
- APtyrosine
- AQcalcium
- ARiron
- ASthyroid hormones detach from TGB
- ATthyroid hormones detach from TBG
- AUtravel bound to carrier protein
- AVtravel dissolved in blood
- AWthyroid-binding globulin - TBG
- AXthyroid-binding globulin - TGB
- AYthyroglobulin - TBG
- AZthyroglobulin - TGB
- BAin nucleus
- BBon membrane
- BCin cytoplasm
- BDT3
- BET4
- BFT1
- BGT2
- BHspecific DNA site
- BIRNA
- BJribosomes
- BKnucleus
- BLtranscription and translation
- BMtranscription
- BNtranslation
- BOreplication
- BPproducing protein
- BQactivating protein
- BRproducing lipid
- BSactivating lipid
- BTsodium-potassium pump
- BUhydrogen pump
- BVcalcium pump
- BWsodium-chloride pump
- BX45 minutes - days
- BY5 - 30 minutes
- BZ30 minutes - 4 hours
- CA2 hours - 2 weeks
19Actions of Thyroid Hormone
Required for normal:
1. [blank_start]Alertness[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Growth[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Metabolism[blank_end]:
- increases [blank_start]body heat[blank_end] production (increases [blank_start]oxygen consumption and ATP hydrolysis[blank_end])
- stimulates [blank_start]fat[blank_end] mobilisation, decreases [blank_start]triglyceride and cholesterol levels[blank_end]
- stimulates [blank_start]carbohydrate[blank_end] metabolism
- increased [blank_start]proteolysis[blank_end], predominantly from [blank_start]muscle[blank_end]
Basal Metabolic Rate
[blank_start]BMR[blank_end] is the body’s rate of [blank_start]energy expenditure[blank_end] under basal conditions:
Person is [blank_start]awake, at physical and mental rest[blank_end], [blank_start]lying down, no muscle movement[blank_end], at [blank_start]a comfortable temperature[blank_end] and is [blank_start]fasted (12-18 h)[blank_end] → how much energy you need to be alive- AAlertness
- BGrowth
- CMetabolism
- Dbody heat
- Eoxygen consumption and ATP hydrolysis
- Ffat
- Gtriglyceride and cholesterol levels
- Hproteolysis
- Imuscle
- Jcarbohydrate
- KBMR
- Lenergy expenditure
- Mawake, at physical and mental rest
- Nasleep, at physical and mental rest
- Oawake and active
- Plying down, no muscle movement
- Qstanding still, no muscle movement
- Ra comfortable temperature
- Sa warm temperature
- Ta cool temperature
- Ufasted (12-18 h)
- Vfed (within 1 hr)
20Too much thyroid hormone ([blank_start]hypersecretion[blank_end])
e.g. [blank_start]Graves Disease[blank_end] ~50-80% of hyperthyroid conditions
Symptoms: [blank_start]High[blank_end] metabolic rate, Weight [blank_start]loss[blank_end], [blank_start]Heat[blank_end] intolerant, [blank_start]Increased[blank_end] heart rate, [blank_start]Nervousness, Hair loss[blank_end], [blank_start]Thyroid swelling, bulging eyes[blank_end]
To diagnose [blank_start]Graves[blank_end] there are two common tests:
- measure [blank_start]Thyroid Stimulating Immunoglobulin (TSI)[blank_end] → too [blank_start]much[blank_end] thyroid hormone negatively feedbacks so [blank_start]low levels[blank_end] of [blank_start]thyroid stimulating[blank_end] hormones
- Radioactive iodine scan to look for [blank_start]accumulation of iodine in thyroid[blank_end].
Not enough thyroid hormone ([blank_start]hyposecretion[blank_end])
e.g. In adults: [blank_start]myxedema[blank_end]
[blank_start]Low[blank_end] metabolic rate, Weight [blank_start]gain[blank_end], [blank_start]Cold[blank_end] intolerant, [blank_start]Lethargic[blank_end], [blank_start]Slow[blank_end] heart rate
e.g. In newborns: [blank_start]cretinism[blank_end]
Same as adults plus [blank_start]Growth is retarded[blank_end], [blank_start]Brain development[blank_end] is inhibited
Caused by: Lack of [blank_start]iodine[blank_end] in mother’s diet
Iodine Deficiency Disorder (aka Simple [blank_start]Goitre[blank_end])
Thyroid gland [blank_start]cannot produce[blank_end] thyroid hormone ([blank_start]TH[blank_end]) without iodine, [blank_start]TRH and TSH[blank_end] secretion [blank_start]increase[blank_end] to stimulate the thyroid gland to make more TH, [blank_start]overstimulation[blank_end] of thyroid gland → [blank_start]growth[blank_end] of thyroid gland
New Zealand has low levels of iodine in soil therefore low levels of iodine in fruits and vegetables so have iodised table salt and now more recently iodised salt in commercial bread to try and reduce iodine deficiency.- Ahypersecretion
- BGraves Disease
- CHigh
- Dloss
- EHeat
- FIncreased
- GNervousness, Hair loss
- HThyroid swelling, bulging eyes
- IGraves
- JThyroid Stimulating Immunoglobulin (TSI)
- Kmuch
- Llittle
- Mlow levels
- Nthyroid stimulating
- Othyroid inhibiting
- Paccumulation of iodine in thyroid
- Qabsence of iodine in thyroid
- Rhyposecretion
- Smyxedema
- TLow
- Ugain
- VCold
- WLethargic
- XSlow
- Ycretinism
- ZGrowth is retarded
- AABrain development
- ABFast growth rate
- ACiodine
- ADsalt
- AEfolic acid
- AFGoitre
- AGcannot produce
- AHproduces too much
- AITH
- AJTRH and TSH
- AKTH and TRH
- ALTSH and TH
- AMTRH
- ANTSH
- AOincrease
- APoverstimulation
- AQunderstimulation
- ARgrowth
- ASatrophy
21Thyroid hormone secretion
- Aexternal and internal CNS input
- Bexternal CNS input
- Cinternal CNS input
- Dhypothalamus
- Ethyroid releasing hormone (TRH)
- Fanterior pituitary gland
- Gthyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Hthyroid gland
- IThyroid hormone (T3, T4)
- JIncreasing basal metabolic rate
- KDecreasing basal metabolic rate
- Lmaintains normal nervous system function
- Mstimulates growth in babies
22Calcium is very important for many physiological functions therefore concentration is very tightly controlled, [blank_start]2.2-2.6[blank_end] mmol/L total plasma concentration. Calcium is a dietary requirement as we lose about 1000mg per day, so need to replace it. [blank_start]Bone[blank_end] is the major store of calcium, immediate adjustments can be made by rapid exchanges between [blank_start]bone and blood[blank_end]. Normally a balance exists between [blank_start]build-up and breakdown of bone[blank_end]. Two hormones are involved in calcium regulation: [blank_start]parathyroid hormone (PTH)[blank_end] and [blank_start]calcitonin[blank_end]. They have opposite effects on blood calcium concentration.
Both act on bone (have receptors on bone cells) to either [blank_start]increase bone breakdown[blank_end] (PTH) when calcium levels are [blank_start]low[blank_end] or [blank_start]decrease bone breakdown[blank_end] (calcitonin) when calcium levels are [blank_start]high[blank_end]. This is [blank_start]NOT controlled[blank_end] by the hypothalamus.- A2.2-2.6
- B3.5-6
- C3.5-8
- D1.5-3
- EBone
- FMuscle
- GFat
- Hbone and blood
- Imuscle and bone
- Jblood and muscle
- Kbuild-up and breakdown of bone
- Lintake and output of calcium
- Mbuild-up and breakdown of calcium
- Nparathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Othyroid hormone (TH)
- Pgrowth hormone (GH)
- Qcalcitonin
- RC-cell hormone
- Scalcium inhibiting hormone
- Tincrease bone breakdown
- Ulow
- Vdecrease bone breakdown
- Whigh
- Xnot controlled
- Ycontrolled
23Maintaining calcium homeostasis:
- Alow blood calcium
- Bhigh blood calcium
- Cparathyroid gland
- Dparathyroid hormone
- Ethyroid gland
- Fbone: increased bone breakdown
- Gbone: decreased bone breakdown
- Hdecreased release of calcium into blood
- Iincreased release of calcium into blood
- Jdecrease blood calcium
- Kincrease blood calcium
- Lkidney: ↑Ca reabsorption, activate vit D
- Mkidney: ↓Ca reabsorption, activate vit D
- Nurinary excretion of calcium
- Ocalcium absorption from food
- PCalcitonin
24Hypocalcaemia pushes RMP [blank_start]closer to threshold[blank_end] → [blank_start]Increased excitability[blank_end] of the nervous system
Leads to spontaneous [blank_start]muscle tremors, spasms (tetany)[blank_end] because random local potentials are [blank_start]more[blank_end] likely to go over threshold. Begins as plasma Ca2+ concentration falls [blank_start]below 2.2[blank_end] mmol/L. [blank_start]Under 1.9[blank_end] mmol/L get [blank_start]paraesthesia[blank_end] (tingling/ burning sensation) in hands and face, [blank_start]muscle cramps[blank_end], and in some cases the muscles of the [blank_start]larynx[blank_end] may contract tightly (laryngospasm), which can shut off air flow and cause [blank_start]suffocation and DEATH[blank_end]Hypocalcaemia can result from:
- [blank_start]Vitamin D[blank_end] deficiency
- [blank_start]Diarrhoea[blank_end]
- [blank_start]Thyroid[blank_end] tumours → overproduction of [blank_start]calcitonin[blank_end]
- Underactive [blank_start]parathyroid glands[blank_end], [blank_start]parathyroid gland removal[blank_end] (hypoparathyroidism)
- [blank_start]Pregnancy and lactation[blank_end] → babies steal milk so mothers die
Hypercalcaemia
Pushes RMP [blank_start]further away from threshold[blank_end] → [blank_start]decreased responsiveness[blank_end] of the nervous system
Nerve and muscle cells [blank_start]less responsive and excitable[blank_end]. At [blank_start]> 3[blank_end] mmol/L can lead to [blank_start]depression[blank_end] of the nervous system, [blank_start]emotional[blank_end] disturbances, [blank_start]muscle[blank_end] weakness, [blank_start]sluggish[blank_end] reflexes. Once plasma levels are [blank_start]> 3.5[blank_end] mmol/L can lead to [blank_start]cardiac arrest → DEATH[blank_end]- Afurther away from threshold
- Bdecreased responsiveness
- Cless responsive and excitable
- D> 3
- Edepression
- Femotional
- Gmuscle
- Hsluggish
- I> 3.5
- Jcardiac arrest → DEATH
- KPregnancy and lactation
- Lparathyroid glands
- Mparathyroid gland removal
- NThyroid
- Ocalcitonin
- PVitamin D
- QDiarrhoea
- Rsuffocation and DEATH
- Slarynx
- Tmuscle cramps
- Uparaesthesia
- VUnder 1.9
- Wbelow 2.2
- Xmore
- Yless
- Zmuscle tremors, spasms (tetany)
- AAIncreased excitability
- ABcloser to threshold
25Cortisol and Adrenaline: integrated stress response
- Anon-stress neural inputs
- Bhypothalamus
- CCRH
- Danterior pituitary secretes:
- EACTH
- Fsympathetic nervous system
- Gsympathetic preganglionic fibres
- Hadrenal medulla secretes:
- Iadrenaline
- Jposterior pituitary secretes:
- KADH
- Ladrenal cortex secretes:
- Mcortisol
- Nkidneys
- O↑ blood glucose, HR, blood pressure
- P↓ water loss, ↑ blood volume and ↑ BP
- Q↑ blood glucose and blood pressure
- Rglycogenolysis liver and skeletal muscle
- Sgluconeogenesis in liver
- T↑ protein breakdown, ↓ glucose uptake
- U↑ fat breakdown, ↓ glucose uptake
26Adrenal glands: [blank_start]triangular[blank_end], [blank_start]4-6cm, small[blank_end], [blank_start]yellow[blank_end] cortex ([blank_start]outer[blank_end] layer - [blank_start]glandular tissue[blank_end]), [blank_start]red/grey[blank_end] medulla ([blank_start]inner[blank_end] -[blank_start]part of sympathetic nervous system[blank_end]). Formed from different parts of embryo. Located [blank_start]dorsally, superior[blank_end] to kidney (ad-renal). Two separate glands.
[blank_start]Cortex[blank_end] has three layers:
outer layer secretes: [blank_start]aldosterone[blank_end]
middle layer secretes: [blank_start]cortisol[blank_end]
inner layer secretes: [blank_start]androgens[blank_end]
[blank_start]Adrenal medulla[blank_end] (central region) secretes mainly [blank_start]adrenaline[blank_end]. Part of [blank_start]sympathetic nervous system[blank_end] so neurons come down and synapse.- Atriangular
- Bround
- Csquare
- D4-6cm, small
- E1-4cm, small
- F10-14cm, large
- G14-16cm, large
- Hyellow
- Iouter
- Jglandular tissue
- Kred/grey
- Linner
- Mpart of sympathetic nervous system
- Ndorsally, superior
- Oventrally, superior
- Pdorsally, inferior
- Qventrally, inferior
- RCortex
- Scortisol
- Taldosterone
- Uandrogens
- VAdrenal medulla
- Wadrenaline
- Xsympathetic nervous system
27Effects of low cortisol?
- ABrain fog, cloudy-headedness, mild depression
- BLow thyroid function
- CBlood sugar imbalances (hypoglycaemia)
- DFatigue (morning, mid afternoon) and Sleep disruption
- ELow blood pressure
- FLowered immune function
- GInflammation → systemic type inflammation
- HMuscle wasting and loss of bone mass
- IFat deposition in the face neck and trunk
- JWeakness
28Addison's Disease
- ALowered secretion of both cortisol and aldosterone
- BLow cortisol concentration leads to ↑ ACTH secretion, ↑ melanin synthesis
- CFatigue, weakness and unexplained weight loss
- DLow blood sodium, high blood potassium, low blood glucose, low blood pressure
- EHigh blood sodium, low blood potassium, high blood glucose, high blood pressure
- FMuscle wasting and loss of bone mass
- GWeakness
- HHigh blood pressure
- IKidney disease and Nerve damage
- JRetinal changes - blindness
29Cushing Syndrome
- Atoo much cortisol
- Bhigh blood pressure
- Cweakness
- DBlood sugar imbalances (hypoglycaemia)
- Efat deposition in the face neck and trunk (especially the abdomen)
- Fedema, muscle wasting and loss of bone mass
- Gnot enough cortisol
- Hinflammation
- IBrain fog, cloudy-headedness, mild depression
- JFatigue (morning, mid afternoon) and Sleep disruption
30Cortisol is released in response to stress, but also has non-stress neural inputs e.g. [blank_start]normal day-night rhythm[blank_end] and [blank_start]low blood glucose[blank_end]. Cortisol levels [blank_start]fluctuate[blank_end] throughout the day and are [blank_start]highest on waking[blank_end]. Cortisol helps cope with stress and maintain [blank_start]normal blood pressure[blank_end], but over time, it suppresses the [blank_start]immune system[blank_end].
It is a [blank_start]steroid[blank_end] hormone which means we [blank_start]can’t store it, produce it as required[blank_end]. It travels in bloodstream [blank_start]bound to carrier protein[blank_end], [blank_start]passes through membrane of target cell[blank_end], it has a receptor [blank_start]in the cytoplasm then moves into nucleus[blank_end] where it [blank_start]activates specific genes[blank_end]. [blank_start]mRNA → protein → effect → slow[blank_end].
Cortisol: increases [blank_start]fat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism[blank_end] to [blank_start]maintain[blank_end] blood glucose. It also affects [blank_start]immune response, BP, HR, CNS activation[blank_end]. And it has anti-inflammatory actions e.g. hydrocortisone cream.
Target cells:
Muscle: increase [blank_start]protein breakdown[blank_end], decrease [blank_start]glucose uptake[blank_end]
Fat: increase [blank_start]fat breakdown[blank_end], decrease [blank_start]glucose uptake[blank_end]
Liver: increase [blank_start]glucose synthesis[blank_end]- Anormal day-night rhythm
- Bnormal monthly cycles
- Cnormal seasonal changes
- Dlow blood glucose
- Ehigh blood glucose
- Flow blood calcium
- Ghigh blood calcium
- Hfluctuate
- Iare constant
- Jincrease
- Kdecrease
- Lhighest on waking
- Mlowest on waking
- Nhighest during exercise
- Olowest after exercise
- Pnormal blood pressure
- Qnormal mood
- Rnormal sleep patterns
- Snormal nervous system behaviour
- Timmune system
- Ureproductive system
- Vnervous system
- Wdigestive system
- Xsteroid
- Ywater soluble
- Zcatecholamine
- AAcan’t store it, produce it as required
- ABmake it in advance and store it
- ACbound to carrier protein
- ADdissolved in blood
- AEin a myelin sheath
- AFpasses through membrane of target cell
- AGuntil it reaches target cell
- AHin the cytoplasm then moves into nucleus
- AIon the cell membrane
- AJin the nucleus of the cell
- AKactivates specific genes
- ALactivates a second messenger
- AMactivates stored proteins
- ANreleases stored proteins
- AOmRNA → protein → effect → slow
- APDNA → protein → effect → fast
- AQmRNA → protein → effect → fast
- ARDNA → protein → effect → slow
- ASfat, protein and carbohydrate metabolism
- ATfat, protein and carbohydrate storage
- AUmaintain
- AVlower
- AWimmune response, BP, HR, CNS activation
- AXnervous system, BP, HR
- AYimmune response
- AZdigestive system
- BAprotein breakdown
- BBprotein synthesis
- BCglucose uptake
- BDglycogen breakdown
- BEglucose uptake
- BFglycogen breakdown
- BGprotein breakdown
- BHprotein synthesis
- BIfat breakdown
- BJfat synthesis
- BKglucose uptake
- BLglycogen breakdown
- BMglucose uptake
- BNglycogen breakdown
- BOfat breakdown
- BPfat synthesis
- BQglucose synthesis
- BRglucose uptake
- BSglycogen breakdown
31Adrenaline is secreted as part of the [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] nervous system’s response to stress.
Hypothalamus [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] centre:
1. [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] [blank_start]presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons[blank_end], to [blank_start]sympathetic target cell[blank_end], neurotransmitter is [blank_start]noradrenaline[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] [blank_start]presynaptic neuron[blank_end] to [blank_start]adrenal medulla[blank_end] which releases [blank_start]adrenaline as hormone in bloodstream[blank_end], travels to [blank_start]sympathetic target cell[blank_end]
Adrenaline is a [blank_start]peptide[blank_end] hormone, so it is [blank_start]stored in adrenal medulla until needed[blank_end]. It binds to a receptor [blank_start]on membrane of target cell[blank_end] and [blank_start]acts by a second messenger system[blank_end].
[blank_start]Neural[blank_end] signal ([blank_start]fast[blank_end]) → [blank_start]releases stored[blank_end] adrenaline ([blank_start]fast[blank_end]) → [blank_start]second messenger system quickly[blank_end] changes activity in cell ([blank_start]fast[blank_end]) → [blank_start]FAST[blank_end]
Target cells:
Metabolic: [blank_start]Muscle, liver and fat[blank_end]: [blank_start]Increases breakdown[blank_end] of [blank_start]glycogen to glucose[blank_end] and [blank_start]fat to fatty acids[blank_end].
[blank_start]Heart[blank_end]: [blank_start]increases[blank_end] heart rate and blood pressure- Asympathetic
- Bparasympathetic
- Csympathetic
- Dparasympathetic
- Esympathetic
- Fparasympathetic
- Gsympathetic
- Hparasympathetic
- Ipresynaptic and postsynaptic neurons
- Jpresynaptic neuron
- Kpostsynaptic neuron
- Lsympathetic target cell
- Mparasympathetic target cell
- Nsympathetic endocrine gland
- Oparasympathetic endocrine gland
- Pnoradrenaline
- Qacetylcholine
- RGABA
- Scortisol
- Tpresynaptic neuron
- Upostsynaptic neuron
- Vpresynaptic and postsynaptic neuron
- Wadrenal medulla
- Xsympathetic target cell
- Yparasympathetic target cell
- Zadrenal cortex
- AAadrenaline as hormone in bloodstream
- ABadrenaline as neurotransmitter
- ACaction potential
- ADsympathetic target cell
- AEparasympathetic target cell
- AFcatecholamine
- AGlipid soluble
- AHsteroid
- AIpeptide
- AJstored in adrenal medulla until needed
- AKonly made as required
- ALon membrane of target cell
- AMin cytoplasm and moves into nucleus
- ANin nucleus of target cell
- AOacts by a second messenger system
- APactivates specific genes
- AQhas a direct effect in the cell
- ARreleases specific proteins
- ASNeural
- ATHormonal
- AUfast
- AVslow
- AWreleases stored
- AXproduces new
- AYfast
- AZslow
- BAsecond messenger system quickly
- BBgene transcription, protein synthesis
- BCfast
- BDslow
- BEFAST
- BFSLOW
- BGMuscle, liver and fat
- BHHeart
- BIMuscle, bones, fat
- BJThyroid
- BKIncreases breakdown
- BLDecreases breakdown
- BMglycogen to glucose
- BNglucose to glycogen
- BOfat to fatty acids
- BPfatty acids to fat
- BQHeart
- BRBlood vessels
- BSKidneys
- BTBrain
- BUincreases
- BVdecreases
- BWmaintains
32Blood Loss
1. Activation of Platelets and the Coagulation Cascade → clot formation and cessation of blood loss
2. Changes to heart rate, cardiac contractility and vascular tone……
[blank_start]Baroreceptor[blank_end] reflex increases heart rate and force of contraction.
Nerve impulses also sent from brain to [blank_start]blood vessels[blank_end] (effectors) causing them to [blank_start]constrict[blank_end] ands [blank_start]increase[blank_end] arterial BP and venous return to heart, [blank_start]diversion[blank_end] of blood away from ‘non- essential’ organs.
Effects: look [blank_start]pale[blank_end] because blood flow directed [blank_start]away from[blank_end] skin
[blank_start]Sweating[blank_end] because sweat glands [blank_start]activated[blank_end] by sympathetic nervous system.
[blank_start]Increased[blank_end] heart rate to compensate for [blank_start]low[blank_end] blood volume.
3. Arterioles in the kidney detect [blank_start]reduced[blank_end] BP
Kidney then initiates a series of events leading to the [blank_start]secretion of various hormones[blank_end] from specific organs which have several effects that help to restore BP and volume via the following means:
[blank_start]Constriction[blank_end] of arteries and veins
Na+ and water [blank_start]reabsorption[blank_end] by kidneys
[blank_start]Stimulation[blank_end] of thirst- ABaroreceptor
- Bblood vessels
- Cconstrict
- Dincrease
- Ediversion
- Fpale
- Gflushed
- Haway from
- Itowards
- JSweating
- KDecreased sweating
- Lactivated
- Minhibited
- NIncreased
- Olow
- Phigh
- Qreduced
- Rincreased
- Ssecretion of various hormones
- TConstriction
- UDilation
- Vreabsorption
- Wexcretion
- XStimulation
- YInhibition
33Insulin can be thought of as signalling that the body is [blank_start]fed[blank_end]. It [blank_start]promotes[blank_end] uptake and storage of nutrients e.g. Glucose, amino acids and fats. It [blank_start]prevents[blank_end] breakdown and use of stored fuels. Conversely, if there is no insulin then the body behaves as if it is [blank_start]starved[blank_end].
- Afed
- Bpromotes
- Cprevents
- Dstarved
34OVERALL ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- Ahypothalamus
- BCRH, TRH, GHRH
- Chormonal signal
- Dneural signal
- Eanterior pituitary
- FGH, ACTH, TSH
- Gposterior pituitary
- HADH, oxytocin
- Iadrenal glands
- Jadrenaline
- Kthyroid gland
- LT3, T4, calcitonin
- Mparathyroid gland
- NPTH
- Opancreatic islets
- Pinsulin and glucagon
- Qcortisol has stress and non-stress input
Informações
- Descrição
- Quiz sobre Endocrine , criado por Juliet S em 17-05-2018.
- Autor
- Juliet S
- Idioma
- English
- Visualizações
- 3
- Avaliação
- Ainda sem avaliações Avalie este quiz