Quiz
S/P Psych Lecture/Tute Qs
Perguntas do quiz (116)
1Consequences of social and self categorization include:
- AChange the way that ambiguous behavior is interpreted
- BStructural consequences
Category differentiation model
(Doise, 1978):
Intergroup differentiation - COutgroup homogeneity
- DExplanatory consequences
Explaining ingroup and outgroup behaviour
Attribution: explaining other people’s behavior (esp. in relation to causes) via situational behavior and dispositional behavior. - EIngroup favoritism: prejudice
- FAll these answers are correct
2Personality psychology can be defined as:
- AAttempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how stable individual differences influence behavior, thought and feeling
- BAttempts to understand the self and the social world with an emphasis on how the situation shapes behavior, thought and feeling
- CPerson vs. situation
E.g., conflict - DBroad discipline with fuzzy boundaries: Blend into other areas (biological, cognitive, developmental…)
3The signature moral response can be defined as:
- A The signature moral response (SMR):
Serious, wrong, bad
Punishable
Authority independent (wrong regardless of authority claims)
General in scope (universal)
Appeals to harm - BThe key distinguishing feature of stimulus: harm or welfare (also rights and justice)
- C Less serious, less wrong, less bad
Less punishable
Authority dependent
Local in scope
No appeals to harm - DNone of these answers are correct
- A The signature moral response (SMR):
4Systematizing variability in moral responses currently includes:
- AShweder et al. (1997) ) Looked at other concepts/key terms that occurred with morality eg. right and wrong, good and bad, associated concepts in everyday language. Proposed 3 Domains of Ethics
- BMoral Foundations Theory (Haidt & Graham, 2004, 2007)
- C Between-culture differences
WEIRD – Western. Educated. Industrialized. Rich. Democratic.
Moralize harm/care and fairness/reciprocity
NON-WEIRD (Not Western)
Moralize all five domains, loyalty, authority respect
Within-culture differences
SocioEconomicStatus differences: SES Increase, community and purity domains decrease. - Dall of the above are correct
5Moral Psychology can be thought of as:
- ARun experiments to uncover empirical regularities or facts about moral judgment and behaviour with an aim to uncovering psychological mechanisms underlying moral judgment and behavior, with a naturalized approach (no supernatural), base explanations in biology.
- Bnot endorsing, just exploring phenomena and the processes involved
- Cresponse-dependent: what counts as moral is that set of phenomena to which people have ‘moral’ responses
- DAll these answers are correct
6Some theories propose that either emotional or reason is the process behind moral judgement.
- ASocial Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for reasoning MJ
- BSocial Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ
- C Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment - DSocial Intuitionist Model (SIM; Haidt, 2001) supports arguments for emorional/intuitive MJ, and
Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment
7moral reasoning and moral intuition are defined as, respectively:
- Aconscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on
and
sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions - Bsudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion. Moral intuitions are largely dependent on emotions
and
conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on - C(Reason, reasoning, rationality) vs. (emotion, intuition, gut feeling)
- DAll are correct
- Aconscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people in order to reach a moral judgment. To say that moral reasoning is a conscious process means that the process is intentional, effortful, and controllable and that the reasoner is aware that it is going on
8Dual process models of individual attitude change
- AD Individual differences
Need for cognition: high – central; low – peripheral - BC Situational
Mood: happy – peripheral; sad – central
Importance to self: important – central; unimportant – peripheral - C B Peripheral (heuristic) route: taken when people are unwilling or unable to think carefully about message content
- D A Central (systematic) route: taken when people are motivated and capable of thinking carefully about message content
- EA and B
- FC and D
- AD Individual differences
9Kohlberg (1963) Stage Theory of Moral Development supports:
- AReasoning and rational processing of MJ
- BDifferent ages people will engage with these concepts using different concepts. Young children will use obedience/punishment, individualism and exchange, then social order.
When people see a stimulus, people use different, varied, deliberate, conscious, logical, moral reasoning according to a set of social rules to conjure a judgement
Stages:
obedience/punishment,
individualism/exchange,
roles,
social order,
individual rights,
universal principles
Emphasis on consciously accessible rules that were applied at the time of judgment.
Stimulus – reasoning – judgment - C Dual process model: revised Competition Theory (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
Both in the moral black box and they often conflict - DAll these answers are correct
10The minimal conditions of us vs. them thinking states:
- Adon’t need rich cultural contexts to engage in categorization
- BUs vs. them categorization happens under any social conditions
- CTajfel et al (1971):
Schoolchildren do a Point allocation task: Klee or Kandinsky paintings- no association b/w preferences and allotted group they were told they belong too, a label. Intergroup discrimination occurred despite random categorization. Mere categorization (based on minimal group conditions) elicited ingroup favoritism
This study's hypothesis were supported - DAll these answers are correct
11Both kinds of processes are likely involved in moral judgments, but they “compete” in order to give rise to a response.
- AThis is known as Competition Theory Greene et al. (2001, 2004).
Each problem pits a deontological option (what is “good” is based on the rule: do not kill innocents) against a utilitarian option (greatest good for greatest number)
Deontological response driven by gut-reactions, emotion, intuition
Utilitarian response driven by controlled, effortful reasoning processes - B Dual process model (e.g., Paxton & Greene, 2010)
Both in the moral black box and they often conflict
What drives moral judgment is a of function properties of the stimuli (e.g., personal vs. impersonal) as well as situational factors (e.g., mood) and individual differences
Emotion drives deontological reactions, reasoning drives utilitarian responses and the competition between these two processes informs moral judgment - COther factors that influence moral judgement beyond emotion and reasoning:
Decision framing (how you word the moral story (e.g., Petrinovich & O’Neill, 1996) - DGreene et al (2001) Competition Theory and the revised version are correct
- AThis is known as Competition Theory Greene et al. (2001, 2004).
12You can define Correlation as:
- AStandardised metric quantifying degree and
direction of linear relationship between two numeric
variables (i.e., X and Y) - BAs how 1 variable causes another
- CHow two variables can be present in different contexts
- DNone of the above
- AStandardised metric quantifying degree and
13Why is correlation important?
- AOne of the most frequently used statistics
– Important to be able to interpret it correctly - BFundamental to theory building in psychology – and outside of psychology as well!
- CIt helps determine when 2 variables of interest are associated with each other
- DAll of these answers are correct
- AOne of the most frequently used statistics
14Examples of when Non-Linear Forms of the Correlation Relationship include:
- Aarousal and
performance - Bintensity of
signal and
probability of
detection - Cfrequency of
tap drip and ability
to concentrate - DAll these are true examples
- Aarousal and
15Homoscedasticity
is:- AHomoscedasticity
In statistics, a sequence or a vector of random variables is homoscedastic if all random variables in the sequence or vector have the same finite variance. This is also known as homogeneity of variance - Bscatterplot of residuals against predicted values to check for
heteroscedasticity.
• Absence of any systematic pattern supports the assumption of
homoscedasticity - CNone of these answers are correct
- DBoth these answer are correct
- AHomoscedasticity
16The Purpose of Social categorization is:
- ATo create boundaries/definitions between communities and cultures
- BTo classify parameters such as age and SES
- CTo classify participants in studies
- DNone of these answers are correct: it's used to navigate/orient ourselves in the world, effort minimizing, pressed for time, communicative
17Null Hypothesis testing in Correlation proccess involves:
- AThe null hypothesis for correlation is:
The correlation in the population is zero.
1 If the probability associated with this null hypothesis is small (p < .05), then we reject the null
hypothesis. - B2 So, we infer that the correlation value for the population is NOT zero
- C3 There is a significant association between the two variables
- DNone of these steps are in order
- EThese steps are in order
- AThe null hypothesis for correlation is:
18Degree of Relationship involves:
- Aevery change in the X variable is
accompanied by a corresponding change in the Y variable - BWith some research questions, correlations of .05 can be large
With others, correlations as high as .6 or .8 can be low - CCorrelations range from -1 to +1
- DAll these answers are true
- Aevery change in the X variable is
19• Y = a + bX + e (Regression Model formula)
- A• Y = a + bX + e
l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant)
l b is the slope parameter
l e is an error or residual term.
l Errors are assumed to be:
– Independent
– Normally distributed - B» Normally distributed with a mean of 0
– Homoscedastic
» Equal error variance for levels of predicted Y - C• Y = a + bX + e
l a is the intercept parameter (sometimes called the constant)
l b is the slope parameter
l e is an error or residual term. - DAll of the above are correct
- A• Y = a + bX + e
20Pendry & Carrick (2001) demonstrates:
- AOutgroup compliance is less than ingroup
- Ba group tendency in behaviour, belief etc. These perceptions of what others do or think we should do influence our behavior in powerful ways
- CHave conformity/rebellious in mind, impact own conformity during a task
- DNone of these answers are true
21The Pearson correlation coefficient (r):
- AIt compares how much the two variables vary together compared with how much they vary seperately
- BExtreme
scores or
outliers can
greatly
influence
value of
correlation. - Cr = Covariability of X / Variability of X and Y Separately
- DAll these answers are true
22The differnce between these two formulas are:
- AThere is no difference
- BY = a + bx + e is observed Y ascore (acual data) whereas Yˆ = a + bx is precicted Y score
- CY = a + bx + e is precicted Y score Yˆ = a + bx is observed, actual Y score
- DThey are used in univariate or bivariate data
23Evolution is:
- AThose individuals with greater chances of survival and reproductive success (due to the possession of adaptive traits
- Boffspring will tend to resemble their parents (i.e. inherit their traits).Thus certain adaptive traits are selected for.
- CThese adaptive traits increase in frequency in future generations, thus coming to be widespread within a species.
- DAll these answers are true
24Exacerbating (enhancing) factors of intergroup conflict include:
- AIndividual differences:
Right-Wing Authoritarianism (RWA): Tendency to submit to established authorities and adhere to social conventions
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): desire to promote intergroup hierarchies (egalitarianism is bad as promotes equal authority) and for one’s in-groups to dominate their out-groups - BCompetition
Realistic Conflict Theory (LeVine & Campbell, 1972): intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce (and thus valued) material resources. Intergroup bias goes up when survival is tough. - CIntergroup Threat: Integrated Threat Theory (Stephan & Stephan, 1985)
Realistic threat: threats to the material well-being of the ingroup, such as their economic benefits, political power, and health (from another outgroup)
Symbolic threat: threats to the ingroup’s system of values-immigrant rhetoric
Intergroup anxiety: feelings of anxiety people experience during intergroup interactions associated with negative outcomes for the self (embarrassed, rejected, ridiculed) - DAll these answers are correct
- AIndividual differences:
25Correlation regression involves
- AAll of these answers are true
- BIf we know two variables are related (correlation) we can use this
knowledge to make predictions about behaviour. - CA linear relationship between two variables
- DRegression model
Y = a + b X + (error)
26Functions of influence include:
- ATo keep social order
- B Normative influence: going along to fit in/connect/belong (often only public/surface)
Informational influence: going along to be accurate (often private/deep) - CTo navigate the world, for surivival
- DNone of these answers are true
27In Regression Toward the Mean with imperfect correlation, an extreme score on one measure tends to be followed by a less extreme score on the other measure
- AExtreme scores are often (but not always) due to chance
- BIf it’s due to chance, it’s extremely unlikely that the other value will also be extreme
- CBoth these are correct
28Benefits of learning stats include:
- A– Tool for understanding the world and developing
psychological theory
– About explaining variability
– About generalising from a set of observations to the
broader population - B• Aim is to improve experimental design and
analyses - C• Training you to bridge the research and applied
world
– Critically evaluate existing research
– Conduct and report your own research
– Build a more sophisticated understanding of reality,
which can then be applied to helping others - DAll answers are true
- A– Tool for understanding the world and developing
29Regression parameters include:
- AIntercept (a)
Estimated value of Y when X = 0.
May or may not be a meaningful quantity - BSlope (b) indicates:
- whether there is a relationship between X and Y
- whether that relationship is positive or negative (cf correlation)
- estimate of expected change in Y when X increases by 1
Slope can be translated into standardised form
convert X and Y into z-scores and then do the regression
standardised regression coefficient (called beta in SPSS.)
compare with correlation coefficient for bivariate data
Can also have confidence intervals for regression coefficients - CNone of these answers are correct
- DAll of these answers are correct
- AIntercept (a)
30Attitudes can guide behaviour ....
- AAttitudes can guide behaviour without much thought
- BAttitudes can guide behaviour through considered intentions
- CAttitudes can guide behaviour in relation to self presentation/norms
- DAll answers are true
31Theusefullness of the F test for Regression is:
- AThe F test tells us whether the variance explained is
significantly different from zero. - BIf the F test is not significant, the regression is worthless. The predictor does not explain the
outcome variable at all. - CThere is no relationship
- DThe two details are correct
- AThe F test tells us whether the variance explained is
32Kin selection, Hamilton’s rule states:
- A Based on Hamilton’s rule, one is more likely to perform altruistic act X (with fixed cost C and fixed benefit B) For kin than non-kin
- B rB > C
r=degree of genetic relatedness; B=benefit to recipient; C=cost to helper. - CAll of these answers are true
- DNone of these answers are true
33Reciprocal altruism
- A: altruism for non-kin can evolve as long as such altruism is reciprocated (either at the time or at some later date)
- Bboth helper and recipient benefit
- CSocial contract theory (Cosmides & Tooby, 1992) (Detecting cheats)
Reciprocal altruism can evolve if it is protected from cheaters
Evolved cheater detection systems: recognition of individuals, memory for interaction histories, communication of one’s values, model others’ values, represent costs and benefits - DAll answers are true
34When do Attitudes Guide Behaviour?
- AAttitude Accessibility:
To influence behaviour, the “right” attitude must be accessible.
Those who are low in self-monitoring have more accessible attitudes.
Attitudes can become aware deliberately - reminding people to think about their attitudes.
Self-awareness makes attitudes more accessible.
Attitudes can become accessible automatically. - BAttitude Compatibility:
Specific attitudes influence specific behaviours. - CPersonal Control:
If we believe we can control our behaviour, attitudes have a big influence.
When we believe our behaviour is not under our personal control, attitudes have little influence. - DAll answers are correct
- AAttitude Accessibility:
35Basic psychological processes that give rise to intergroup include:
- ASocial Identity Theory (SIT)
People prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem. Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups). - BSelf-categorization theory:
Categorize ourselves as group members
Such self-categorization leads to depersonalization, assimilation (behavior) to ingroup norms, and self-stereotyping - CSocial categorization: the placement of individuals into a class of similar individuals, often based on features such as gender, ethnicity, nationality…Primitives: age, gender, race (contested): we can’t help but categorize people. Other salient groups apply
- DAll of these answers are correct
- ASocial Identity Theory (SIT)
36 Cialdini et al. (1990) , in a Group (imagined) – NV – behaviour context, shows:
- A Descriptive norm influenced behavior
- B Cross-norm inhibition: norm-adherence inhibited or undermined by violations of other norms (break one rule, break many)
- CNone of the above
- DAll of the above
37Consequences of social categorization include:
- ASocial categorization can automatically activate information consistent with the ST
- BStereotyping: process of viewing an individual in light of a stereotype, draw upon group stereotype to understand individual
- Cexpectancies about a social group (probable behaviors, traits, features) can be positive or negative (cf. prejudice- judging negative)
- DAll these answers are correct
38Social Identity Theory (SIT) is:
- APeople prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem
Our selves are composed of personal (individual) and group-related identities: Personal identity (attributes of you as an individual) and social identity (those parts of the self-concept derived from our knowledge and feelings about our ingroups). See ingroup identity a more positive relative to outgroup identity to boost self-esteem. - BIntergroup differentiation ; Within group homogeneity (especially for outgroups)
- CCross-race identification bias (Other race effect- they all look/think the same)
- DAll these answers are correct:
- APeople prefer to have a positive self-concept, boost positive self-esteem
39Asch (1951) shows:
- Asurface conformality
- BMirror Neuron activity
- CPerception and behaviour links
- DAll of these answers
40Resolving conflict solutions involve
- AExtended contact: knowledge that other ingroup members have outgroup friends can reduce intergroup bias
- BIntergroup contact:
The more contact one has with an outgroup, the less prejudice one expresses - CIndividual differences (the good kind): fostering positive individual differences: “building character”
- DAll these answers are correct
- EChanging categorization: Change the cognitive representation of outgroup members so it is no longer simply us vs. them
- FPromoting cooperation:
41self schema is:
- AAll answers are correct
- BOrganize and guide the processing of self-related information that are part of the individual’s social experience.
- CAre derived from past experience.
- DAre cognitive generalizations about the self
42Milgram's Study shows:
- ANone of these things
- BAll of these things
- CAuthority pushes people to do things
- D Punishment in learning
43Sherif (1936) demonstrates:
- A Convergence: Authority pushes people to do things
- BCultural norms change overtime, but we are always influenced by norms
- Cpeople look to others in uncertain circumstance, use other peopl’es information to secure reality
- DNone of these answers are true
44Moderators of normative influence include
- A Self-confidence decrease
Task difficulty increase
Stereotypes… - B Group cohesion increase
Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)
Social support for deviant position decrease - CAll of these answers are true
- DNone of these answers are true
- A Self-confidence decrease
45Individual – V – behaviour increases of compliance include:
- AAll these answers are correct
- BCommitment
- CAuthority
- DLiking
- EReciprocity
46Challenges and Criticisms (and rebuttals) of Evolution Psych include:
- AAll answers are correct
- B Naturalistic fallacy
- CGenetic determinism
No nurture - DReductionism
47Intergroup Conflict involves:
- AB and C are correct
- BA Three primitives – sex, age, “race”
- C B Us vs. them thinking
- DC Age and sex make sense from ev. perspective, but race does not. Race is not a factor in the EEA
48 Race is not a factor in the EEA as:
- AAll answers are true
- BIf such patterns are correlated with physical features, these features would come to serve as cues in the coalition detection system (e.g., dress, gait, dialect)
- C By-product of alliance/coalition detection
- Dlived in bands and often formed coalitions within bands. Moreover, neighboring bands often came into contact/conflict. These alliances needed to be tracked.
49 Petty & Cacioppo (1984) demonstrated:
- AFactors influencing attitude change in the Central route include: Present participants with weak or strong arguments
Some participants were highly involved; others not
argument quality matters - B Factors influencing attitude change in the Peripheral route include:
Source expertise
Source attractiveness - CNeither of these answers are correct: reverse them
- DThese answers are correct
- AFactors influencing attitude change in the Central route include: Present participants with weak or strong arguments
50Implicit Measures of Attitude include:
- AImplicit Association Test (IAT)
- BGo/No-Go Association Task (GNAT)
- CAttitudes can also be inferred from observing behaviour.
- DAll answers are correct
51Can behaviour predicted by implicit and/or explicit attitudes?
- AImplicit attitudes are thought to reflect more automatic, less controlled evaluations
- BExplicit attitudes are thought to reflect conscious thoughts and considered reactions to the object.
- CExplicit attitudes predict controlled behaviour.
- DImplicit attitudes predict more spontaneous behaviour.
- EAll answers are correct
52 Moderators of mimicry:
- A Affiliation goal (desire to connect) and attempting to reconnect
Group membership: ingroup > outgroup
Group cohesion increase
Power: powerless > powerful
Mood: good > bad
- B Self-confidence decrease
Task difficulty increase
Stereotypes… - C Group cohesion increase
Group size (but with a plateau of about 30-35% conformity at n = 3)
Social support for deviant position decrease - DNone of these answers
- A Affiliation goal (desire to connect) and attempting to reconnect
53Assumptions of EP include:
- ADomain specific
- BComposed of collection of evolved psychological mechanisms (modules)
- CAll these answers are true
- DAdaptations
54Types of Attitude Explicit Measures are:
- AGuttman scales:
- BLikert scales
- CSemantic Differentials
- DAll answers are correct
55History of psychology includes the following movement
- AAll these answers are true
- B Cognitive revolution
- CStandard Social Science Model (SSSM)
Blank slate written on by experience - DBehaviorism
56Attitude Properties include:
- AComplexity:
The number of elements in the attitude. - BStrength:
Certainty or probability – how strong the attitude is. - CValence:
Evaluation – whether the attitude object is viewed positively or negatively - DAll answers are correct
- AComplexity:
57Actions of the self include:
- AMaterial and social self-seeking involve things, such as proving for our needs, and social things, such as being friendly, curious, and emulating others.
- BSpiritual self-seeking involves “every impulse towards psychic progress”, including intellectual, moral, and spiritual pursuits in the narrow sense.
- CAll answers are true
- DNeither answer is true
58Altruistic behavior
- AAll these answers are correct
- BKin selection
- CMate choice
- D Morality
59The difference between Implicit and Explicit Attitudes are:
- AExplicit is self aware, reporting
- BImplicit involves subconscious, unaware, detailed
- CNone of these answers are true
- DAll of these answers are true
60Social Influence
- A Functions of conformity: informational, normative
Conformity also communicates something to others: agreeableness - BNon-conformity also serves as a signal: uniqueness, independence
- CBoth answers are true
- DNone of these answers are true
- A Functions of conformity: informational, normative
61The components of attitude are:
- AAffective component – liking or feelings about the attitude object.
- BBehavioural component – how we behave toward the attitude object.
- CCognitive component – our thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object.
- DAll answers are correct
62Motives of the self include:
- ASelf-improvement: Desire to improve a particular aspect of the self. Elicited by circumstances involve past threat or failure
- BSelf-verification: Desire for consistency in self knowledge. Elicited by circumstances which involve failure.
- CSelf-enhancement: Desire to achieve and maintain a positive sense of self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when the particular self-view is important.
- DSelf-assessment: Desire to have accurate information about the self. Elicited by circumstances involving both success and failure, especially when knowledge of one’s ability is uncertain.
- EAll answers are true
63Similarity beyond the actual self: Robins & Boldero (2003) argued that relationship formation involves more than similarity in actual selves. This means:
- AAll these answers are correct
- BWhen a potential partner is like one’s ought self, we interpret this as “this person is how I should to be”.
- CWhen a potential partner is like one’s ideal self, we interpret this as “this person is how I would like to be”.
- DWhen one’s own and a potential partner’s actual selves are similar (or commensurable), we interpret this as “this person is like me”.
64The limitations of Personality traits
- A How valid are self-report assessments of personality
- B Are traits or situations more useful for predicting behaviour
- CBut much of our personality is highly contextualised, and shared a consensus but not an objective proof
- DAll these answers are true
65Mate choice involves:
- ADue to the Parental investment theory (Trivers, 1972): the sex that invests most in the offspring (usually the female) will be more selective
- BAncestors who had an aversion to incest had greater reproductive fitness (produced more viable offspring)
- CBoth answers are true
- DNone of these answers are true
66Constituents of the Self include:
- AThe Ego - aspect of self that actively experiences the world.
The stream of consciousness that gives us our sense of personal identity.
“It is the sense of a sameness perceived by thought and predicated of things thought-about.” - BThe Me - aspect of self that is the object of attention.
- CNeither answer is true
- DBoth answers are true
- AThe Ego - aspect of self that actively experiences the world.
67Ajzen’s (1991) Attitude Measure
- ATheory of Reasoned Action, Ajzen specified that attitudes should be assessed by taking the product of two factors
- BBehavioural Beliefs: Behavioural beliefs are the beliefs about the outcomes associated with the attitude object.
- COutcome evaluations: Outcome Evaluations are the evaluations of the outcomes associated with the attitude object.
- DAll answers are correct
68Self-reference effects in encoding ...
- ASelf-reference leads to deeper processing which is superior to semantic processing.
- Blinear trend with self-reference processing requiring longer times
- CSuperiority of “yes” words supports schema – “yes” fit with schema whereas “no” do not
- DAll answers are true
69self-regulatory factors and links of self-regulatory factors with psychological problems include:
- AAll answers are correct
- BPromotion and prevention failure along with higher assessment are associated with higher levels of vulnerable narcissism
- CAssessment – the tendency to assess the self, others, and different options for action.
- DLocomotion – the tendency to move between state to state.
70Regulatory fit effects include:
- AAll answers are true
- BForm stronger intentions to conform to a persuasive message and are more persuaded by the message (Ceasario et al., 2004).
- CFeel more guilty about their past behaviour – a negative not positive event (Camancho et al., 2003).
- DAnticipate more enjoyment from the task
71Self-Regulation is:
- ASelf-regulation is the tendency to change the
self with respect to some reference value or
goal (may involve maintaining a present state
or striving to achieve a desired future state - BSelf-regulatory models assume that individuals are motivated to approach desired end-states
- CBoth answers are true
- DNeither answer is true
- ASelf-regulation is the tendency to change the
72What is the relative strength of the self-enhancement and self-verification motives?
- ABoth answers are correct
- BNeither answer is correct
- CSuggests that self-enhancement is stronger than self-verification motive.
- DConsistent with self-enhancement model, there was a preference for diagnostic information for positive central traits.
73Principles of Self regulation include:
- ARegulatory Focus
- BRegulatory Reference
- CRegulatory Anticipation
- DAll answers are true
74Regulatory Focus Theory states:
- AIn terms of a prevention-framed goal, success is viewed as the avoidance of an undesired end-state) and failure is experienced when one does not avoid it.
- BFor a promotion-framed goal, success is experienced as achieving a desired end-state and failure is experienced as a failure to achieve it.
- CBoth answers are true
- DNeither answer is true
75Three categories of the empirical self:
- AThe spiritual self - all things that are not tangible that carry the designation my or mine - attributes or abilities, pleasure and pain. To think about ourselves as thinkers.
- BThe social self - how we are regarded and recognized by others. We have as many social selves as people who recognize us.
- CThe material self - all tangible objects, people, or places that carry the designation my or mine.
- DAll answers are true
76Interpersonal ties serve the function of:
- AInformational
- BEmotional
- CInstrumental
- DAll of the above
77Sternberg’s (1986) model of love states that love as 3 divisions, including:
- ACommitment – deciding about and maintaining love.
- BPassion – romance, physical, and sexual attraction.
- CIntimacy – feeling close, connected, and bonded.
- DAll answers are correct
78Natural selection involves:
- A Differential reproduction
Some characteristics will lead to greater survival or reproduction - B Genetic inheritance
Characteristics must be passed down from parents to offspring through genes. - C Variation
For evolved biological changes to occur, variation in a characteristic must exist (otherwise there is no source of change). - DAll of these answers are correct
- A Differential reproduction
79Common Life Narratives include:
- AThe ‘Growth Story’
Personal development, or ‘becoming’ as a central theme - BRedemption Sequences’
Significant episodes whose form goes from worse to better (overcoming adversity, undergoing a transformation etc) - CBoth these answers are true
- DNeither of these answers are true
- AThe ‘Growth Story’
80Life History Theory involves:
- A 1) Resources vary in their availability over time and space
- B 2) Fitness maximisation is not a ‘one-shot game’
- long vs. short-term strategies - C 3) Trade-offs must be made: Trade-offs are influenced by varying individual and environmental circumstances.
Thorough exploring increases likelihood of finding high quality resources, but delays reproduction - DAll answers are correct
81Greatest impact of Social Context on Characteristic Adaptations and life narratives. Aspects of personality concerned with time, role, place, and identity are deeply grounded in social context and culture
- Agoals, and values tend to be related to interdependence in collectivist cultures and with independence in individualistic cultures (Markus & Kitayama, 1991)
- B e.g., timing and content of social roles varies across culture and social context
e.g., caregiver role construal… (Friedlmeier et al., 2008) - C e.g., personal narratives draw on the stories and metaphors that are salient in our culture
- DAll of these answers are correct
82Why does similarity lead to attraction?
- AShared attitudes suggest mutual attraction. If I like someone and they like the same things as me, I can infer that they will like me too
- Bwhen we learn that someone has the same attitudes and beliefs as us, it feels good as it suggests we have sound judgment.
- CBoth answers are true
- DNeither answer is true
83Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics:
A set of statistical methods to partition variation in traits into:- AEnvironmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences
Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied
Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied - BGenetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents
- CNeither answers are correct
- DBoth answers are correct
- AEnvironmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences
84Major criticisms of attachment theory
- ACaregiver responsiveness largely determines the quality of attachment relationships.
- BWorking models tend to be stable across the lifecycle
- CA “deterministic” view of development.
- DAll answers are correct
85Interdependence – the basis of close relationship: the 3 types are...
- AAffective
Individuals emotions are influenced by and influence their partner’s emotions. - BBehavioural
Individual’s behaviour is influenced by and influences their partner’s behaviour. - CCognitive
Thinking about the self and partner as inextricably linked, as part of a whole rather than separate individuals. - DAll answers are correct
- AAffective
86The role of reciprocity is:
- AReciprocity via Rewards:
We like others who reinforce our behaviour (at the beginning of relationships, costs are discounted … but not later on!). - BReciprocity via Good Moods:
We infer liking from our mood states. - CDirect reciprocity:
We like others who like us .
Social approval – being positively evaluated is intrinsically rewarding.
Correlations between mutual liking are around .5 (which is substantial). - DAll answers are true
- AReciprocity via Rewards:
87Characteristic Adaptations involve:
- Aconcerns an individuals particular life circumstances
highly contextualised - BRelatively stable goals, interpretations, and strategies, specified in relation to an individual’s particular life circumstances
- CMotivational, social-cognitive, and developmental adaptations, contextualized in time, place, and/or social role
- DAll of these answers are correct
- Aconcerns an individuals particular life circumstances
88Selective Neutrality makes restrictive assumptions
Balancing Selection may be more plausible as it considers:- AFrequency-dependent selection: If all your neighbours are pursuing one strategy it may pay to pursue another, explain traits
- BEnvironmental heterogeneity (‘niches’)
- CAntagonistic pleiotropy (fitness trade-offs)
- DAll of these answers are correct
89Themes of The Big Five Personality traits:
- AInterpersonal responses
- BEmotional responses
- CResponses to achievement settings
- DAll answers are true
90Social context (Reciprocal effects of traits and social environments) includes:
- A Parenting- Serious problems:
Causal ambiguity: (e.g., childhood introversion may elicit overprotective parenting)
Genetic confounding: (e.g., behaviour of the parents and the child may be influenced by common genetics) - B Birth order-Large multinational samples that control for these confounds find no relation between birth order and personality
- C Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977)
Behaviour is learned via the examples of others, as well as via direct rewards/punishments. The ‘bobo doll’ study of aggression - DAll answers are correct
- A Parenting- Serious problems:
91The next challenges in Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics
- AGenetic variance or ‘heritability’ (i.e., ‘nature’): influence of genes inherited from biological parents
- BEnvironmental variance (i.e., ‘nurture’): influence of experiences
Shared variance: environmental influences that are common to the individuals being studied
Nonshared variance: environmental influences that differ across the individuals being studied - CNeither answer is correct
- DAll answers are correct
92Fiske’s (1991) relational models
- AThe market pricing model in which relationships are organized to a common scale of ratio values such as money.
- BThe equality matching model in which relationships are organized with reference to their degree of balance.
- CThe authority ranking model organizes relationships in asymmetrical terms. Individuals are hierarchically organized with higher-ranked individuals having the authority to organize, dominate etc.
- DThe communal sharing model which organizes relationships in terms of collective belonging or sharing
- EAll of the above
93How are relationships described using relational models?
- AFiske proposed that relationships based on one model would be rare and that all relationships to some degree would be described by the models.
- BClose relationships were described more by the communal sharing model than acquaintance relationships
- CRelationships with close friends were also described by the equality matching model, whereas equality matching and market pricing models described relationships with acquaintances.
- DAll of the above
94The exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) states
- AWe like people we meet often.
- BAll answers are correct
- CPhysical proximity is also important.
- Dthe sheer frequency of encountering a neutral or positive stimulus enhances its evaluation.
95Models of emotions experienced in relationships and relationship maintenance. Several models focus on the role of perceived discrepancies as the important determinants of emotional outcomes in relationships. These social exchange models start with the premise that the distribution of rewards and costs between the partners in relationships are experienced as positive and negative feelings in the relationship, thus signaling how well we are “doing” relative to one’s partner.
In addition, these emotions are proposed to be the determinants of whether the relationship is likely to continue or not.- AEquity Theory (Walster, Walster, & Berscheid, 1978): According to this model, relationships are perceived to be fair if each persons’ outcomes are proportional to their contributions. Receiving less or more than one contributes results in lower satisfaction, although receiving less is worse than receiving more
- BInterdependence Theory Thibaut & Kelly (1959): Individuals are motivated to maximize rewards relative to costs in relationships.
Satisfaction and attraction are defined in terms of expectations and outcomes.
Individuals compare relationship outcomes to two standards – the comparison level (CL) and the comparison level for alternatives (CLalt).
The comparison levels are determined either using others’ relationships or past relationships.
The CL is the standard against which the attractiveness of the relationship is evaluated. When the level of outcomes exceeds this, the individual is satisfied with the relationship.
The CLalt is the standard used to determine whether to stay or leave the relationship. If an alternative is not available (this may include no relationship), the individual may continue in the relationship. - CInvestment Model (Rusbult, 1980): The Investment Model is an extension of Interdependence Theory which includes relationship commitment and investments.
Commitment is a function of high satisfaction, few alternatives, and high investment.
Satisfaction is a function of rewards minus costs. Alternatives are the perceived desirability of other relationships. - DIdeal Standards Model (Simpson, Fletcher, & Campbell, 2001): The ideal standards model is an extension of Interdependence theory and Self-discrepancy theory.
Partner and relationship ideals are chronically-accessible knowledge structures that influence relationship judgments.
These standards have three functions: evaluation, explanation, and regulation.
Larger discrepancies between perceptions of a partner or the relationships with these standards results in lower evaluations of the partner and the relationship. - EAttatchment Theory:
This is a psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory that provides a descriptive framework for understanding interpersonal relationships.
Begins with the premise that infants have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers.
The relevant infant behaviour is primarily a process of seeking proximity with an identified attachment figure. - FAll of these answers are correct
96Personality will cease to predict behaviour in “strong situations”, characterized by…
- AClear behavioural expectations
- BIndividual ability to meet the demands of the situation
- CIncentives for compliance (or threats for non-compliance)
- DAll answers are correct
97Predictors of Violence include:
- AMoreover, both male and female physical violence was highest in couples where a male partner had high attachment avoidance paired with a female partner with high attachment anxiety.
- BMale violence predicted female violence.
- CFemale attachment anxiety predicted violence.
- DAll answers are correct
98Limits to the attractiveness effect include:
- AAlthough romantic partners and male friends’ physical attractiveness are correlated (r =.48 & .38), female partners’ attractiveness doesn't correlate (r = .00) (Feingold, 1988).
- BPeople who conform to gender roles, care more about physical attractiveness (Andersen & Bem, 1981).
- CPeople prefer good companions, considerate, honest, affectionate, dependable, intelligent, kind, understanding, interesting, and loyal long-term mates (Buss & Barnes, 1986).
- DAll of the answers are correct
99Growth of pro-situation Theories
- AMischel (1968) argued that behaviour on one occasion was unrelated to behaviour on a second occasion; therefore personality cannot exist
- BShweder (1975): “The Conceptual Similarity Critique”
“How people classify” is mistaken as “how to classify people”
Coherence of personality traits (discovered by factor analysis [week 10]) simply reflect judgements of conceptual similarity - CThe Fundamental Attribution Error” (also called “correspondance bias”; Gilbert & Malone, 1995). People mistakenly explain behaviour in terms of dispositional factors rather than to situational factors
- DAll answers are correct
100The Big Eight “DIAMONDS” model, Like a “big five” framework for situational characteristics includes:
- AAll answers are correct
- BDuty
- CMating
- DSociality
101Personality/ situation transactions work together to influence behaviour in combination in what ways?
- A1. Situational selection:
Where traits predict entering a strong or consequential situation
e.g., extraversion and accidents - B2. Situational evocation:
Where traits impact on the dynamics of a particular situation
e.g., traits (e.g., low agreeableness) relationship quality divorce - C3. Situational perception:
Where traits shape appraisals of a situation, and thus an individual’s experience of that situation, e.g.,
agreeableness opportunities to cooperate;
neuroticism negativity and frustrations;
openness/intellect intellectually engaging - DAll answers are correct
- A1. Situational selection:
102Life Narratives,the richest level of personality description, involve:
- A Focus of content analyses:
Tone (Positive/optimistic/utopian, negative/pessimistic/dystopian)
Themes (Preoccupations with certain problems, goals etc)
Form (Stability? Change? Slow vs. rapid progress? Inertia?) - BThe unity and purpose of the self: A ‘personal myth’
- CNarrative Identity: The internal, dynamic life story that an individual constructs to make sense of his or her life
- DAll answers are correct
- A Focus of content analyses:
103Problems with Cattell’s 16 traits:
- A Subjectivity:
Different people reach a different reduced set of Allport & Odbert’s descriptors - B (Poor) Replicability / Reproducibility:
Using Cattell’s 171 personality descriptors, many people failed to obtain his same 16 factors - C Redundancy:
Many of his factors correlated too highly for them to really be ‘different’ traits - DAll of these answers are correct
- A Subjectivity:
104Other factors influencing attraction
- Areligion
- Bgender
- Cage
- DAll these answers are correct
105Stability in personality:
- A Personality has a developmental trajectory, but in relative terms remains fairly stable
- BMean level stability is relatively low
- CAll answers are correct
- D Personality changes for everyone - development and ‘maturation’
106Why does similarity lead to attraction?
- ANone of these answers are correct
- BBoth these answers are correct
- CWhen two people like each other and discover that they are similar, this represents a balanced state.
- DUnbalanced states involve negative affect.
107Milgram’s (1962) wanted “to study behavior in a strong situation of deep consequence for the participants
Milgram measured personality in (only) one of his ~20 studies… and found effects of personality:- AAll answers are correct
- B Authoritarianism: more obedience from those who respect and value authority
Locus of control: more obedience from those with an external locus of control - Cthat people are exposed to powerful treatments, the role of the individual differences among them are minimized”
- D above average trait-behaviour effects emerge even in ‘strong situations’ in replicated studies.
108Consistency of behaviour proving the consistency of personality involved:
- A Fleeson (2001): Individuals vary over time and space in their personality state expressions……but also are highly stable:
- B Average levels of personality states are well predicted by personality trait questionnaires
- C Techniques for assessing behaviours/experiences multiple times per day for several days or weeks
- DAll answers are correct
109What is personality?
- A• Regularities in behaviour and experience
- B A person’s typical mode of response
- COur identity and our reputation
- DThere is no one definition
110Personality involves:
- ADispositional traits
- BLife Narratives
- CCharacteristic Adaptions
- DAll of these answers are true
111 Allport and Odbert (1936) produced the theory of:
- AImportant characteristics will, over human history, be coded in language. Collected an exhaustive list of personality descriptors – about 18,000 terms (e.g., sociable, aggressive…)
- BPersonality traits are probabilistic descriptions of regularities in behaviour and experience
- CFactor Analysis
A statistical method that reduces several correlated variables to much fewer composite variables or factors… - DNone of these answers are correct
112Cattell’s Method allows us to:
- Aa personality system or taxonomy system
- B describing the structure of personality
- C Organizing the universe of trait descriptors
- DAll these answers are correct:
113Sherman et al., 2015 study states
personality and situations independently predicted state expressions and to a similar extent – no person x situation interaction.
A potential problem with Sherman et al’s (2015) study…- A Moderate trait-situation correlations, e.g.,
Neuroticism situations high in Negativity,
Extraversion situations high in Sociality,
Conscientiousness situations high in Duty - B Correlated predictors can make it harder to detect interactions
- CBreil & Vazire, 2017
Possible role of situation perception, inflating trait-situation correlations - DAll answers are correct
- A Moderate trait-situation correlations, e.g.,
114Distal causes of personality are:
- A Genetics and evolutionary history
- B Upbringing, parenting
- C Social context and culture
- DAll answers are correct
115Behavioural (Quantitative) Genetics designs include:
- A1. Family studies: siblings vs. more distant relatives
- B2. Twin studies: identical vs. fraternal twins
- C3. Adoption studies: siblings raised together vs. apart
- DAll of these answers are correct
116The Rise of Situationism has Two key claims:
- APersonality a weak predictor of behaviour (r ~ .30).
- BBehaviour varies considerably over situations.
- CBoth answer is correct
- DNeither answer is correct
Informações
- Descrição
- Moral Psychology, SMR, SCR, Moral intuition and reasoning, Processes of Moral Judgements, Regression Models, Social Influence on Behaviour and Attitude, Evolution Psych, Personality, Nature, Nurture, Situations
- Autor
- Taylor Carre-Riddell
- Idioma
- English
- Visualizações
- 63
- Etiquetas
- Avaliação
- Ainda sem avaliações Avalie este quiz