Chapter 6

Chapter 6

1. Classical Conditioning

   • A type of learning in which a stimulus aquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus (Also known as Pavlovian Conditioning)
     • Unconditioned Stimulus: A Stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning
       • Unconditioned Response: is a unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning
         • Conditioned Response: Learned reaction to a conditional stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning
           • Evaluatative Conditioning: refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with another positive or negative stimuli; It involves the acquisition of likes and dislikes or preferences though classical conditioning
             • Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendacy
               • Spontaneous Recovery: the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus
                 • Renewal Effect:: If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisitions took place
       • Conditioned Stimulus: Neutral stimulus that has through conditioning acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response
     • Trial: In Classical Conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or a pair of stimuli
     • Acquisition: The initial stage of learning something
       • Pavlov theorized that stimuli are contagious if they occur together in time and space
     • Stimulus Generalization: Organism has learned a response to a specific stimulus
       • Higher Order Conditioning: A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were a unconditioned stimulus
   • Animal Example: dogs learn to salivate at the sound of a tone that has been paired with meat/meat powered

2. Operant Conditioning

   • Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences, also known as Instrumental learning
     • Law of Effect: if a response in the presence of a stimulis leads to the satisfying effects the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened
       • Reinforcement: event following a response increases an organisms tendency to make that response
         • Reinforcement Contingencies: circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers
           • Primary Reinforces: Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs
             • Secondary Reinforces: Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforces
               • Shaping: Consists of reinforcement of a closer approximation of a desired response
                 • Negative reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus
                   • Negative Reinforcement: A response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
       • Resistance to Extinction: an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcement has been terminated
         • Discriminative Stimuli: cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response. This plays a key role in operant behaviour
           • Schedule of Reinforcement: which occurences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer
             • Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement: a designated response is reinforced only some of the time
       • Fixed Ratio: The reinforce is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses. Example, A dog is rewarded every 6th time after a trick
         • Variable ratio schedule: reinforce is given after a variable number of non reinforced responses. Example, A slot machine gives off money every 7th time one average
           • Fixed Interval Schedule: reinforce is given for the 1st response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed
             • Variable Interval Schedule: reinforce is given for the first response after a variable interval has elapsed
       • Escape Learning: An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
         • Avoidance Learning: an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring
           • Latent Learning: learning that is no apparent from behaviour when it first occurs
       • Instinctive Drift: occurs when an animals innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes
     • Operant Chamber|Skinner Box: A small enclosrure in which a small animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled
       • Cumulative Recorder: Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner Box as a function of time
     • Animal Example: Trained animals perform better because they have been reinforced for gradually learning approximation of responses

3. Observational Learning

   • Observational learning: occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others who are called models
   • Basic Processes
     • 1: Attention. To learn through observation you must pay attention to other persons behaviour and its consequences
       • 2: Retention: You may not have a event coming up for months or years but you must store it in your memory as a mental representation of what you have observed
         • 3: Reproduction. Enacting a modelled response depends on that ability to reproduce the response by converting mental images into overt behaviour
           • 4: Motivation. Your motivation depends on whether you encounter a situation in which you believe that the response is likely to pay off in the end
   • Mirror Neurons: Are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person preform the same action
   • Animal Example: An English Titmouse bird learns to break into mil bottles by observing other titmice