Sociological Methods

Sociological Methods

1. Types of Data

   • Quantitative data is in numerical form
     • Used during experiments to test a hypothesis
     • More reliable as it is easy to reproduce, but less valid because people can't share their personal opinions
   • Qualitative data can be audio, visual, written
     • Used when researchers observe social life in order to develop new theories
     • Less reliable (harder to reproduce and get the same results) but more valid as you can talk to each person individually

2. Methodology

   • Methodology refers to the methods researchers use to collect data, as well as the philosophy underlying the production of sociological data
   • Methodological pluralism refers to the use of a variety of methods and types of data in a single research study
   • Triangulation refers to the use of a variety of methods and different types of data to cross-check that the results obtained by one singular method are reliable
     • This might include using qualitative methods, like an interiew to check against a quantitative survey

3. Viewpoints

   • Positivism
     • Refers to the belief that there ae "social facts" that can be studied objectively
     • Emphasises the use of quantitative data
       • Research methods include: laboratory experiments, the comparative method, social surveys, structured questionnaires, formal/structured interviews, non-participant observation, official statistics, content analysis
       • High in reliability and objectivity
     • Used by Marxists and functionalists as they believe that through science we can move forward in society
     • August Compte developed the theoretical perspective of positivism in regards to conducting research
       • Positivists believe that society could be explained using scientific principles based on objetivity, reliability and generalisation which can be observed through quantitative data
       • Positivists believe that you can acquire a cauuse and effect relationship: when one thing occurs or changes it always provides the same result
   • Interpretivism
     • Implies that people are conscious of their personal beliefs and that they influence the way they act
     • Emphasise the use of qualitative data
       • The researcher attempts to gain an in-depth understanding of how people see and understand the world by putting themselves in the position of the people they are studying
       • Research methods include: uncontrolled field experiments, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews overt and covert participant and non-participant observation, personal accounts, using personal documents such as diaries and letters
     • Argues that sociology should not be associated with science and therefore use non-scientific methods
     • Feminists use these methods because they believe that men dominate science and we should instead look to understand women and their personal struggles in a patriarchal society
     • Action theories also apply interpritist methodologies

4. Factors That Affect Choice of Topic

   • The sociologists perspective e.g. Marxist, feminist
   • Society's values, e.g. the increase of feminism in the 1960's led to further research on gender inequality
   • Funding bodies. Sociologists often need to cover the costs of their own study. Funding bodies, such as the ESRC can provide economic support. As the funding body is paying for the research they may state what they want to be studied.

5. The Research Process

   • 1. Hypothesis or aims
     • Positivists prefer a hypothesis because it's more scientific, and it can be proved or disproved
     • Interpritivists prefer to outline their aims because it is broarder and allows the research to be led by the participants
   • 2. Choice of method
   • 4. Pilot study
     • A draft version of the research carried out on a small sample
   • 3. Operationalising concepts
     • Concepts within the sociologists hypothesis/aim are broken down to determine how they will be measured (operationalised)
   • 5. Data collection
     • The research is carried out in full
   • 6. Publish findings
     • The sociologist interprets and analyses the data to come to their own conclusions. A report will be written detailing their research process and conclusions

6. Consideration Factors

   • Practical Factors
     • Time
     • Funding
     • How easily the researcher can access the group they want to study
     • The availability of existing data
     • The carrer interests and needs for the researchers to meet deadlines and publish findings
     • Whether the researcher has the personal skills and characteristics needed
     • The availability of existing data
   • Trustworthy Results
     • Generalisability: whether the method enables the results to be generalised to smaller groups
     • Validity: if the results present a true, authentic depiction of real life
     • Reliability: if the results can be reproduced to check
   • Ethical Factors
     • Avoid any harmful consequences on the researcher or those who are being studied
     • Avoid deception (not being honest about the intentions of the study)
     • Ensure that they gain freely given informed consent of those taking part
     • Respect the privacy, interests and anonymity of those taking part
   • Theoretical Issues
     • A Functionalist, Marxist, or Feminist approach affects the choice of topic
     • Whether a positivist or interpritivist approach is attempted affects the choice o research method
     • Action theories

7. Values in Research

   • Subjectivity
     • When you make a judgement based on your own personal bias
     • Sociologists are part of the society they study and are therefore involved in their own values and beliefs
     • Often associated with interpritivists and feminists who believe that it is important to have interaction and personal involvement with the people they are studying
   • Objectivity
     • Associated with scientific disciplines, positivism and quantitative methods
     • Means the researcher has removed all personal bias from their research
   • Value Free
     • Championed by positivists who believe that sociology should be entirely value free
     • No personal opinions or bias should enter sociological research . Sociology should just be observable facts, like in the natural sciences
     • Positivists, such as Emile Durkheim, believed that science was the science of society and therefore needed to follow scientific principles in order to gain credibility. It was the job of sociology to identify social problems and cure social ills with scientific research
       • He believed that his study of suicide was value free because he found trends within official statistics that were gathered in a scientific way
   • Value Relevance
     • Max Weber didn't believe that sociology should be completely value free, and insted discussed the importance of value relevance
     • He argued that sociologists will use their subjective feelings to identify a research topic and concepts they feel relevant, but carry out their research objectively
       • Data collection and hypothesis testing should remain as objective as possible
       • Choice of topic area and interpretation of findings would be subjective
   • Value Laden
     • Means the researcher is weighed down by their values
     • Reasons for being value laden
       • Paymasters often have an agenda and project their values onto the research
       • Alvin Gouldner argued that research is often done for career progression and the sociologist will pick a tpic that will get them noticed in the community
       • Ken Plummer argues that our personal beliefs can never be removed from our conscience. We are often drawn to a topic because we have a desire to explore something that interests us
         • Plummer argues this was crucial to his research as he reearched his own sexuality through the development of "queer theory"
   • Value Committed
     • Howard Beckett argued that all sociologists should be value committed
     • Sociologists would use their insight and positions of power to give a voice to the deprived and in doing so we can bring about social change.

8. Modernity and Post Modernity

   • Features of The "Modernist" Era
     • The Nation State
       • Each country developed a political unit that had it's own sovreignity
       • Within each boundary, the population would usually share a similar language and culture
     • Capitalism
       • The economic state of the modernist era
       • It is the job of the state to regulate the capitalist system, however it's nature is to bring inequality to society
     • The Growth of Science and Rationalisation
       • Science overtakes religion as the dominant belief system
       • Individualism means that even though society is still divided y class, age etc, individuals have more dreedom
   • Features of The "Post Modernist" Era
     • Postmodernists argue that society has changed since the Modernist era due to globalisation
     • Decline of the nation state: They argue that all countries are now connected and therefore the seperate nation states are no longer significant in the way they used to be.Each nation state no longer has total autonomy as political organisation such as the United Nations and The European Union Exist
     • "The Death of the Social": Jean Baudrillard aregues that some individual's only interaction with the outside world is through media and this shapes the way we think of the world
       • As a result, the traditional need for a sense of belonging to a community has become redunant

9. Sociolgy as Science

   • Positivism
     • August Compte developed the theoretical perspective of positivism with regards to social research
     • Their belief was that society could be explained with scientific principles based on objectivity, reliability and generalisation, which can be obtained wwith quantitative data
     • Positivists believe that one can acquire cause and effect relationships- when one thing occurs or changes it always provides the same result
   • Induction
     • Emile Durkheim was particularly influenced by Compte and applied it to his study on suicide
     • He used induction, which is a process where a researcher gathers a large sample of statistics, with the aim of finding trends that illustrate the impact of "social facts" upon society
   • The Hypothetico Deductive Model
     • Durkheim used official statistics and the Hypothetico Deductive Model in his research
     • This is when a researcher starts with a hypothesis they wish to prove correct
   • Interpritivism
     • Interpritivists believe that the study of human nature cannot be scientific as our nature is completely unreliable and our actions can have a varety of complex meanings
     • Interpritivists follow the process of Verstehen: in order to get a valid understanding of the experiences of an individual, the researcher must try to understand them through abandoning the principles of objectivity and putting themsselves in the place of the other
     • Interpritivists are critical of science as a discipline. They believe that science lacks vaidity and therefore sociology should distance itself from the discipline
   • Post modernists
     • Would agree with interpritivists that sociology is not a science, because science is a "meta-narrative" that tries to generalise every indiviual into a catch-all theory
       • Jean Francis-Lyotard believes that any system that tries to do tthis is irrelevant in todays fragmented post-modernist society as there is no accepted monopoly of the truth
     • Popper also argues that sociology is not a science. He disagred with positivist researchers as he believed that "verificationism" was irrelevant to science due to the "fallacy of induction"
       • He instead practiced "falsification." Popper argues that a scientist should never set out to prove their theory correct, but rather set out to prove themselves incorrect. The longer a theory stands without being disroven, the more accurate it is

10. Sociology as Social Policy

    • Feminist Perspective
      • See society as based on conflict and patriarchy where men benefit from women's expense
      • The state perpetuates female subordination through social policy
        • For example, the state bases it's policies on the nuclear family, so it offers benefits to married couples
          • This forces women into often exploitative family structures and segregated conjugal roles
    • Marxist Perspective
      • They see society as divided by conflict of interest in which the ruling capitalist class exploits the labour of the working class
      • The state represents the ruling class and it's social policies serve the interests of capitalism. They also use ideological law-making and selective law enforcement to further oppress the proletariat
      • They argue that social policy offers create a "caring face" of capitalism. This means that policies fool the poor into thinking that the state cares about them when in actual fact policie offer a distraction from the exploitation that exists in society
        • For example, the introduction of the minimum wage pretends that capitalists care about the poor
        • This is a way of preventing revolution when class conflict threatens capitalism
    • Functionalist Perspective
      • Functionalists see society as being based on vaue consensus which is free from conflict
      • Durkheim believed that through scientific research we could discover both the problems and solutions to society's social ills
        • Therefore sociology's role is to provide the state with objective scientific information that they can use to base their social policies on
      • Piecemeal social engineering
        • The state introduces policies that serves society as a whole and helps society run more smoothly and efficiently
        • However, Functionists take a more cautious approach, looking at one issue at a time, called piecemeal social engineering
    • The New Rights Perspective
      • They believe tht the state should have minimal involvement in society. They are opposed to state involvement in the family, income support, education and healthcare
      • They feel that this takes away people's choices and their feeling of personal responsibility
      • Charles Murray argues that the welfare state gives "perverse incentives" that weaken self-reliance and encourages a dependency culture
      • They want sociologists to come up with alternative policies to the existing ones that restore the responsibility that the welfare state has taken away from individuals
      • They want to take responsibility for their own and their family's welfare rather than leaving it to the state